跨文化交际英语论文样例十一篇

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篇1

语言是文化的重要载体，随着当前跨地区、跨国以及跨民族交流的日益频繁，英语作为通用语言成为了国际交流中重要的工具之一。学生跨文化交际意识的培养不仅涉及到英语语言本身的知识与理论，同时也涉及到了英语文化，因此，重视推动文化教学与英语教育的整合，是提高学生跨文化交际意识的有效途径。教师在英语教育中来合理的选取英语文化内容并融入教学活动中，不仅可以让英语教学本身具有更加丰富的素材，同时能够在促进学生英语素养提高的基础上为英语教育创设良好的分为。在此方面，教师应当注意，英语文化教学内容的选取应当以学生的学习需求以及认知水平为出发点，并根据学生的学习需求以及认知水平来在不同的阶段开展具有不同侧重的教育教学活动。如在高校大一阶段，教师应当侧重于语言教学，从而确保学生具有良好的英语语言基础，而在大二以及之后的阶段，教师则应当有意识的融入英语文化教学内容，从而较好的实现文化教学与英语教育的整合。

2)在重视学生主体地位的基础上引导学生开展自主学习

在高校英语教育过程中，学生是教学活动开展的重要参与主体，无论是教学内容的选择还是教学方法和教学模式的设计，都应当以学生的英语基础和知识接收能力为出发点。在以培养学生的跨文化意识为重要教学任务的英语教育中，虽然教学的内容得到了扩展，但是高校英语的教学课时却没有响应的增加，在此背景下，教师只能够在传授给学生合理科学的学习策略与学习技巧的基础上来让学生自主的完成教学任务与教学目标，因此，为了实现学生跨文化交际意识的有效提高，教师有必要在教学过程中承认并尊重学生的主体地位，并在此基础上引导学生开展自主学习，在此过程中，教师有必要通过了解学生的学习策略、学习风格等来对学生进行有针对性的指导，从而促使学生在自主学习中对英语文化作出体验、对提高跨文化交际意识的重要性做出认识，同时推动学生英语知识的自主构建并使学生树立终身学习的英语学习观念。

3)使用多元化的教学渠道来挖掘学生潜能

随着信息技术的发展以及在社会各个领域中的广泛应用，信息技术的价值以及优势已经得到了社会各界的广泛肯定，而在高校英语教育中，通过实现英语教学和信息技术的整合，不仅能够让英语教学具有更加丰富的教学素材和更加直观、生动的教学内容呈现形式，同时能够为学生学习英语文化创造良好的条件。如通过在培养学生跨文化交际意识的过程中运用信息技术来辅助教学活动，教师可以利用网络搜索一些英语电影和英语歌曲对英语文化进行展现，这些内容可以让学生对英语文化进行亲身体验，并提升学生开展跨文化交际能力的兴趣，从而对学生的跨文化交际潜能进行有效的挖掘。

4)体验式教学与说教式教学并重

在英语教育过程中，相对于学生而言，教师在英语专业知识以及英语文化知识方面的素养优势更加明显，所以教师可以通过说教式的教学方式将自身对跨文化交际的体会讲授给学生，虽然在这种教学方式中，学生出于被动接受的地位，但是这种教学方式在培养学生跨文化交际意识方面所产生的成效是不容忽视的。另外，体验式教学也是培养学生跨文化交际意识的有效路径，在此过程中，教师可以通过组织各类参观活动或者在课堂中进行角色扮演来促使学生对英语文化进行体验，使学生在实践中不断积累知识与经验，从而让学生对英语知识以及英语文化作出更加深刻的认知。

5)引导教师对母语文化和英语文化进行对比

在汉语环境中，学生本身无论是在语言知识方面还是文化认知方面都具有着一定的思维定式，并且学生在学习英语的过程中也很少对这种思维定式做出反思，并且也经常出现将汉语语言知识和汉语文化套用到对英语语言知识和英语文化的理解中。因此，教师有必要引导学生对母语文化和英语文化作出比对，并使学生在了解文化差异的基础上深化对英语文化的认知并提升学生的跨文化交际意识与跨文化交际能力。通过引导学生对母语文化与英语文化进行比较，可以在教学过程中构建一种跨文化交际的氛围，并在提高学生学习积极性的基础上使学生对英语语言知识以及文化知识作出更加牢固的记忆。同时通过这种比较，可以让学生认识到文化是多元化的，并且文化之间并没有优劣之分，只有在承认每一种文化的合理性基础上，才能够与更好的开展跨文化交际，这不仅有利于学生跨文化交际意识以及跨文化交际能力的提升，同时能够培养学生开放且包容的文化观。

6)在认识学生差异的基础上因材施教

在高校英语教学中，包括培养学生的跨文化交际意识在内的所有教学活动都应当承认并尊重学生的个体差异性，并对学生差异性做出了解的基础上进行人才视角。由于学生生活背景、学习历程的不同，所以无论是在文化体验、思维方式还是价值观方面，每个学生都会存在差异，而这些内容恰恰又是文化教学的基础，所以在培养学生的跨文化交际意识过程中，教师有必要从学生的文化体验、思维方式以及价值观出发来对母语与英语文化作出比较，从而促进学生跨文化意识的强化。

2重视提高教师的跨文化素养

在高校英语教学过程中，高校英语教师是学生跨文化交际能力提高过程中的主要引导者，同时是连接学生与英语文化之间的桥梁，教师本身所具有的跨文化综合素质对学生跨文化交际能力的培养产生着决定性的作用，因此，作为高校英语教师，要具备强烈的跨文化意识，并重视对自身的英语文化知识结构进行完善，在充分了解母语文化与英语文化差异的基础上推动自身跨文化修养的提高。语言是文化的重要载体，如果教师与学生不能充分了解英语文化准则与英语文化模式，则将难以对英语语言专业知识作出真正的掌握。虽然当前大部分教师都对学生跨文化交际能力的培养给予了高度重视，但是由于自身欠缺跨文化素养或者欠缺跨文化教育经验，针对学生开展的跨文化交际能力培养也往往难以取得良好的教学成效。

所以，在高校英语开展跨文化教育的过程中，教师需要做到以下两点内容：一是教师有必要对自身的文化修养进行提高。作为高校英语教师，在不断丰富自身英语专业知识的基础上，有必要通过阅读英语文学作品、鉴赏优秀的英语原声电影、欣赏高雅的英语歌曲以及结交外国朋友来对英语文化作出全面深刻的了解。另外，教师要在掌握英语文化知识和文化特点的基础上具备较好的汉语文化认知与教学能力，通过在课堂教学中向学生展示汉语言文化与英语文化的差异来加深学生对英语文化的理解与认知，从而促使学生的文化洞察力以及文化敏感性得到提高，并在此基础上提高学生的跨文化交际能力；其次，在高校英语教师的跨文化素质提升过程中，高校有必要对教师的继续教育内容作出改革，从而让教师提高自身跨文化能力的提高得到进一步的拓展。在教师培训以及继续教学方面，培训内容以及继续教育内容有必要涉及到民俗学、历史、文学以及地理等多种知识，从而让教师深刻的理解英语文化产生的根源，并在此基础上对英语文化作出理解与认知。另外，在教师的培训以及继续教学方面，有必要增加多远文化教育以及跨文化教育内容。从而在使教师树立开放且包容的文化馆基础上，对英语文化进行接纳与吸收。

3解决跨文化交际能力培养过程中的阻碍

篇2

语言作为传递信息的工具，学习英语的最终目的是交际。在英语教育的过程中，应加强对学生跨文化交际能力的培养，目的是让学生更多的了解英语国家的历史文化、风俗习惯、价值观，学会运用他们的语言和思维方式交流，这一观点如今越来越受到教育界和语言学界的支持。“在教学中既突出语言教学是第一位的,又利用英语教育进行跨文化教育,实现教书育人的目的,才能最终实现教学目标”。

1.语言文化观得到广泛的支持

语言学家胡文仲曾指出“在外语教学中，不重视文化知识显然会落后于客观的需要。必须注重提高学生的文化敏感性，提高他们跨文化交际的能力。”这一观点已经得到了英语教育界的认可，并且在教学实践中有了一定程度的体现。自20世纪80年代以来，伴随着国内语言学界对于语言和文化教学关系的研究及国外的社会语言学发展，英语教师对文化与语言、文化与交际两者的关系也有了逐步深入的认识。外语界认为：语言作为文化的载体，既有工具性，又有人文性，外语教学不仅仅包括语言知识的教学，还包括文化知识的教学。

2.文化教学日益受到重视

回顾历年的《中等职业学校英语教育大纲》，对于言语文化关系的陈述不断深入，对文化教学的要求也逐步明确。1998年版的《大纲》指出：中等职业学校的英语教育“深化语言知识，提高语言交际能力和自学能力”；2000年版的《大纲》明确提出以“实用为主，应用为目的”的教学目标，指出了：“英语学习过程应成为学生形成积极的情感态度、主动思维和大胆实践、提高跨文化意识和形成自主学习的过程”，并且强调“了解世界和中西文化差异，拓展视野，培养爱国主义精神，形成健全的人生观”；2009年版的《大纲》指出：“中等职业学校英语课程旨在激发学生的英语学习兴趣，培养良好的学习习惯，树立学习英语的自信心，改善学习策略，通过语言基础知识、文化知识的学习和基本语言技能的训练，逐步提高学生在职业和生活场景下的英语应用能力；培养学生具有良好的职业道德、文化意识及正确的人生观、价值观，以满足学生就业、职业生涯发展和终身学习的需要”。

通过对以上三个版本的教学大纲进行对比，我们可以发现：中职学校的英语教育逐渐注重语言与文化的关系以及文化教学的作用，逐步引导学生了解英语国家的文化和社会习惯，理解本民族的文化。并逐步明确指出：语言材料要真实、地道，贴近学生生活和未来职业，同时适当地渗透英语国家文化。

3.应用型人才培养的需求

目前，社会对于人才的需求发生了一定的变化，用人单位衡量人才的标准因素是与现代化生产密切联系的英语读写能力、综合素质和实用技能等，这是市场经济不断完善和健全的结果。中职阶段的英语教育成为了应用型、综合型人才培养的主要组成部分。一方面，英语教育可以帮助这些具有专业的技术人员掌握英语的基础知识和基本素养，为他们以后的升学就业创造条件；另一方面，通过对国外文化的了解，有助于帮助学生跨文化交际能力的培养，拓宽他们的视野，树立爱国思想，有助于形成正确的人生观和价值观。因此，文化教育在英语教育中有着举足轻重的地位，它可以使学生具备一定的跨文化交际的意识和能力，满足国家建设的需要，还可以在一定程度上提高学生自身的人文素养，促进他们的全面发展。

二、跨文化交际能力培养的意义

1.有助于学生自身人文素养的提高

不同的民族经过长期的历史积淀产生不同的文化，每个民族都有自己的习语，都可能蕴涵着丰富的文化内容，它体现着本民族的思维方式和生活方式。中职校学生的英语教育与他们的文化素养有密切的联系，对学生进行跨文化教育，将中国的传统文化与西方的文化进行正确的比较，了解外来文化，汲取多种文化的精髓，形成正确的生活态度、思维方式和道德观念，再有，就是进行现实文化形态，在潜移默化下拓展学生的知识范围，帮助他们形成正确的认知理念，提高他们的思想境界和综合素质。

2.有助于英语教育方式的变革

学生的跨文化交际能力的欠缺，英语综合运用能力的低下，是传统的英语教育只注重词汇和语法教学的结果，从而忽视了英语作为语言的文化传播功能。现代的英语教育已经开始注重对学生的英语交际功能的培养，跨文化的交际行为已经在外语教学中的地位逐渐突出，教学大纲中对文化教学目标也已经做了明确的说明。因此，在中等职业技术学校的教学实践中，要做到规范化的教育教学，就必须以国民素质的构建为方向，以学校的素质教育为基础，以社会教育为辅助，从跨文化知识的传授、意识的养成以及能力的提高等层面展开，并协同道德教育、学科教育及社会教育共同进行。

3.有助于适应经济全球化

随着我国改革开放的快速发展，经济全球化的迅速推进，社会的需求也从专业型转变为综合型。人类社会的每个角落包括人们的生活、思考、行为方式也伴随着全球化的浪潮发生着变化，这就对教育尤其是外语教育提出了新要求，在教育过程中不仅哟教会学生的语言技能，还需要从跨文化的实际交际能力的层面着手，要深刻理解外国文化，视野面向全世界，提升综合能力，符合全球化浪潮下社会发展的需要。

三、跨文化交际能力培养的对策

1.注重文化教学的内涵

基于对文化教学的新目标新要求，在英语教育重要特别注重对文化教学的内涵挖掘。例如单词的文化内涵，单词作为英语语言的最基本要素，是学习英语的基础，必须特别注重，单词的文化内涵包括其指代范畴，联想意义，情感色彩和文化背景。例如：“individualism”，个人主义，这个词对中国人和美国人的意义就不同，由于国情和教育不同，在中国，这是一个带有贬性意义的词语，因为它与中国人心中的“集体主义”相反，而在美国的个人思想中，强调个人奋斗和不断进取的价值观，这就是一个褒性意义的词语。因此，在学习不同语言的时候，要深入了解其所在的文化背景和包含的深刻意义，避免造成误解。

篇3

谈起英语教学,人们认为英语教学只和读写译等几项基本技能的训练和培养有关。无可置疑,这样的认识是不全面的。因此我认为在英语教学中应该适当的融入跨文化交际。“跨文化交际”指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际,也指在任何语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。

由于不同的民族所处的社会、宗教等背景的不同,因而各自的环境产生了不同的语言习惯。在跨文化交际中,如交际的双方不能融入同一个文化背景中,交际双方就容易产生误解。

一、为什么在英语教学中要注重跨文化交际

语言和文化是相辅相成,密不可分的。一方面,语言是文化的一部分,是文化的载体;另一方面,文化又制约语言,所以语言教学特别是英语教学与文化学习是密不可分的。不同的语言文化背景会导致语言各个方面,例如:语法、词汇、习语等差异。把跨文化交际意识融入到英语教学中意义非浅。

(1)把文化意识融入英语教学中有助于学生在英语学习中对英语的运用与理解。按照H•Ned Seelye的观点,他认为文化分为两个层次,一个层次是C文化,即文学、艺术、、哲学及科技,另一个层次指的是“人们的生活”,即风俗习惯、传统和社会组织。 文化不是一门独立的课程,它是语言教学的组成部分。语言与文化相依存。因此,把文化意识地融入到英语教学中,有助于学生的英语学习。

(2)在交际中,杜绝语言使用上的错误。语言使用错误有两种:一是语法错误,一是文化错误。在英语学习中,教师不仅要教学生正确地语法,更要向学生讲解语言的文化背景。这样,当学生和外国人交流时,才不会因不懂得语言的文化背景用错了词而闹出笑话。沃尔夫森阳说“在与外族人交谈时,本族人对于他们在语音和语法方面的错误往往比较宽容:与此相反,违反了说话规则,则被认为是不礼貌的,因为本族人不大可能认识到社会语言的相对性。” 所以在英语学习中,教师应该帮助学生了解语言的文化背景。

二、如何把跨文化交际应用到英语教学中

在英语教学中应该时时刻刻都要注意文化的渗入与融入,了解语言与语言之间的文化的异同,只有这样才能把英语学好。英语学习注重词汇,习语,语法等方面的学习,所以就要从以下的几个方面把文化融入到英语教学中。

1.从词汇方面。英语词汇在长期的使用中,形成了丰富的内涵。学生们在学习和使用英语单词时,经常由于不懂得某个单词的文化意思而使用错误,造成笑话。所以在英语教学中要注意把英语词汇的文化意义介绍给学生。教师可以在教学过程中有意识地总结有文化背景的单词然后讲解给学生。例如:总结关于动物的词汇。在中国,dragon“龙”被认为是神圣的,是帝王的象征,但在西方,人们则认为龙是邪恶的象征。在中国,dog“狗”多被用在一些贬义词中,例如:“狗腿子”“走狗”等。但在西方,人们把狗看成是朋友,所以狗经常被用在褒义词组中,例如:“love me love my dog”“lucky dog”等等。

2.从习语、俚语方面。习语和俚语是人们在经过长期的社会活动和生活经历,在一定的文化背景下被总结掌握的词语。习语和俚语充分地体现了语言的文化环境,在英语学习中占有重要的地位。教师在讲解英语习语和俚语时,要格外地注意他们的文化内涵,要把跨文化交际融入到对习语和俚语的讲解中。如:当教师讲解“From that day on, we were always together, Lucy and me was like peas and carrots.”这句话时,如果只从字面意思理解,意思为“从那天开始,我们就在一起,露西和我就像豌豆和胡萝卜。”这么翻译是错误的,如果学生知道西方饮食文化就不会只知道这句话的字面意思了。在西方烹饪中,胡萝卜经常被切成丁和豌豆搭配在一起,有圆有方,有红用绿。颜色鲜美,这样就可以作为配菜来装点主菜,使主菜显得更加鲜美。这两种蔬菜,有营养但味道一般所以不会抢了主菜的“风头”所以这里的豌豆和胡萝卜被引申为“形影不离”。如果不把跨文化交际应用到英语教学中,学生如何才能学到地道的英语呢?所以在英语教学中,跨文化交际能力就显得尤为重要。

3.从语法方面。教师应把跨文化交际应用到语法教授中,只有教师生动形象地讲解英语语法的文化背景,学生对语法的使用才能挥洒自如。例如:“It is important to talk with my teacher how to review the book.”这个句子的结构是it作形式主语,不定式作真正主语并后置。为什么由it来充当主语呢?如果学生们了解说英语国家人们使用语言的特点,就不会问这样的问题。在英语中,人们习惯把冗长的内容放在句子的后面,用间接的词语代替冗长的内容,就能使语言生动形象,朗朗上口。由此可见,在英语的语法教授过程中,教师应把说英语国家人们使用语言的特点,及文化背景介绍给学生们是非常有必要的。

跨文化交际与英语教学息息相关,在英语教学中有着重要的实际意义。总之,在英语教学中要注重培养学生们的跨文化交际能力,只有这样,学生才能真正地把英语学好,才能真正地做到学有所用。

参考文献:

[1]杨平泽.非英语国家的英语教学中的文化问题[J].国外外语教学,1995,(1).

篇4

在国际间交流与合作不断密切的背景之下，不同文化相互的交流与碰撞也更加频繁。语言作为文化交流与沟通的重要载体，必须在国际化、全球化的趋势下，对教学手段与方法做出适当的改进及调整。在大学英语教学过程当中，必须结合学生专业的特点，创设各种有利的条件，让学生在英语学习的过程当中尽量多的接触不同的文化，培养学生对中西方文化差异的敏感性，使跨文化交际能够顺利有效的展开。

1、跨文化交际论的内涵

大学英语教学区别于其他阶段英语教学最显著的一项特点就是英语教学从词汇、语法等角度上来说都具有非常突出的专业性特征，与学生的专业方向相契合。培养学生交际能力的教学方法必须以学生作为教学（也就是课堂）的主体，教师则作为课堂的组织者，重点调动学生在语言学习中的积极性与潜能，通过对交际活动以及交际情景进行设计的方式，将学生融入实际的交际活动当中，培养学生应用英语语言进行社会交际沟通的能力，从而达到大学阶段英语教学的最终目标。

有关交际能力内涵的阐释虽然有非常多的类型，但归纳起来仍然有一些共同之处。具体来说，语言的交际能力主要侧重以下几个方面的内容：首先是语言形式是否符合语法要求;其次是语言形式是否能够被交际双方所接受;再次是语言形式的使用是否得体妥当;最后是语言形式在交际运用中是否存在现实性问题。从现代语言功能学的角度上来说，认为语言作为一种特殊的社会现象，交际、交流是其最主要的功能之一，语言的构成包括了词汇系统、语义系统、语法系统、以及音位系统这几个方面。从这一角度上来说，在大学英语教学过程当中，引入跨文化交际论对学生语言交际能力进行培养的重点就在于：以扎实的语法基础为前提，全面提高学生语言听、说、读、写的综合能力，并且在特殊语言环境下，能够根据交际双方的社会地位、身份角色的得体的进行跨文化交流。

2、大学英语教学与跨文化交际论的关系

在大学英语教学中，学生需要将所掌握的丰富的语言材料知识正确应用于语言交际环节当中。传统意义上的语言教学侧重于语言形式，无法提高学生在真正交际环境下的语言运用能力。而在语言运用的过程当中，学生常常会忽略交际双方所处的社会文化以及语言交际环境的特殊性，在跨文化交际中出现语言应用不得体的问题。而以交际为目的的跨文化交际论则很好的解决了这一问题，其通过培养学生跨文化交际能力的方式，以满足不同文化背景人们的交流。在语言交际的学习与训练过程当中，必然会涉及到两种不同的文化形式。大学英语教学中除了需要向学生传授英语用语国家在民族文化方面的特点，掌握其在价值观、生产方式、生活、风俗、宗教、以及礼仪等多个方面的知识，同时还需要将本民族的文化内涵通过交际的方式传输出去。受到这一因素的影响，使得英语教学自然而然地涉及到的跨文化的影响与制约。大学英语教学中，学生除了需要吸收西方文化中优越的素质因素（如创造性思维，明确的目标，突出的个性，以及勇于创新的精神等），还应当尽全力摆脱只重视语言结构形式，学习目标空洞，语言交际能力差的问题，从而促进自身跨文化交际能力的不断提升。

3、大学英语中跨文化交际论的教学策略

1）课堂融入：在大学英语教学过程当中，教师可以通过课堂融入的方式引导学生学习相关文化知识。教师可以利用课前五至十分钟的时间进行练习，练习的主要内容是与英美国家相关的文化知识，特别是注意对文化差异知识的传授，然后引导学生们通过讨论的方式来比较中西方在文化上的差异性。

2）专门讲解：教师可以在大学英语教学过程当中结合教材教学内容，对涉及到文化知识的部分进行专门注释，在语言知识的教授过程当中同步进行文化知识的分析与引导，通过这种方式，能够使跨文化交际更加的灵活与有效。例如，在涉及到与英美国家历史知识相关的内容时，教师除了需要向学生介绍相关的语法语句外，还可以利用一定的时间介绍与之相关的历史事件以及历史背景，使学生能够加深认识。以新闻专业的学生英语教学为例，不同国家由于国情不同，因此在进行新闻报道时常常会出现冉的专业词汇。政治报道方面，西方国家常见单词有“Parliament（议会）”，“Congress（国会）”、“senator（议员）”等。而在对中国国内事务的报道中，常见的词汇与短语则有：“invigorate China through science end education（科教兴国）”，“place equal emphasis on materiel and spiritual civilizations（两个文明一起抓）”等等。学生在学习中必须了解这些专用词汇所代表的含义，更需要通过教师专门的讲解，了解其所对应的机构构成以及作用，以便在脑海中形成联系，加强对上下文的理解。

3）系统介绍：在大学英语教学过程当中，往往会根据专业领域的不同，开设一些与西方国家文化相关的课程。这些课程的学习能够使语言学习的中心自传统意义上的语言结构方向向语言功能方向转变，避免学生对语言形式的掌握过于孤立，而能够在社会环境中掌握语言形式的具体使用方法。

4）对比讲解：在大学英语教学中，为了能够培养学生跨文化交际的思想，还可以对中西方两种文化的差异进行对比，通过对比比较的方式引入文化特点。通过这种方式，能够使学生同时了解本民族与其他国家在风俗习惯或其他方面的差异。例如，在《冰河世纪》中，有原文为“Burn，Double burn”，如果采取直译的方式，则译为“燃烧，加倍燃烧”。但结合英语用语习惯，该俚语可以解释为“糗，太糗了”，所表达的是对某人的不尊重。这种翻译上的差异是学生必须通过跨文化交际学习而掌握的。再以新闻专业英语教学为例，英文中在表达数字概念时可以采取的表达方式非常多，而中文则以直接的方式进行表述。即中文中所表达的数字概念“75%”在英文中可以表达为“three quarters”，也可以表达为）“seventy-five percent”。除此以外，英文在日常生活中所出现的某些特殊句型也是影响英文语音转换为汉语语义的重要因素之一。即使是在所用词语在两种文化中有对应物时，也会由于思维局限性使意义的传达产生偏差。例如：It is the last straw that breaks the camel's back。在该句中，“straw”一词与汉语中的“稻草”一词相对应，而在英文中所指的则是”会使人超出承受能力的最后的事情或事物“。两者之间的联系“稻草”能联想至“最后的希望”，如“救命稻草”。

4、结束语

在新时期，大学英语教学大纲中进一步突出了交际作为语言本质功能，在语言教学中的重要意义，认为学生需要通过对所学语言知识的综合应用来表达自身思想，同时进行情感上的交流。为了能够增加学生对不同文化差异的敏感性，就需要积极改进大学英语的教学方法，采取多种教学策略来调动学生的学习积极性，引导学生有步骤，有重点，有计划的对本国以及英语国家文化知识的综合学习，促进自身知识面的扩展，使跨文化交际能够更好的在大学英语教学中实施并开展。

参考文献

[1]邓炎昌，刘润清.《语言与文化----英汉语言文化对比》.外语教学与研究出版社，1989.

[2]黎土旺.跨文化交际与英语教学[J].西南民族大学学报（人文社科版），2003，24（12）：276-277.

篇5

语言学家萨费尔指出:“语言有一个环,使用语言讲话的人们属于一个种族……再者语言不能脱离文化而存在。”因此对语言的学习也就是对文化的学习,而就我国英语教学的现状而言,重语言轻文化的现象普遍存在,造成这种状况的原因由来已久。而且在传统教学模式的影响、限制与束缚,以及英语教师本身在跨文化交际知识方面存在很多缺陷,而在英语教学本身就是跨文化交际活动,必须以跨文化知识有意识地组织教学这两个问题上,还远没达成一致的认识,全然不知语言是文化的载体。所以这种英语教学模式培训的结果常常是大多数学生不能较熟练地阅读外文原版书籍,尤其听不懂、讲不出,难以与外国人直接交流,即“哑巴”英语。这样的交际能力远远不能适应我国对外交流的需要,所以英语教师一定要着力培养学生的跨文化交际能力,包括对所学语言国家的文化、民族和国家之间差异的了解。交际能力包括语言能力、社会语言能力、语用能力和策略能力,即学会在一定的场合、一定的环境中得体地使用语言。

一、文化与交际文化

文化,作为一个专门术语,富有弹性。有人把文化说成是一种复杂的社会现象,它包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗,以及其作社会上习得的能力与习惯。交际的过程是人们运用语言知识和社会文化知识传递信息的过程,所以学习语言与了解语言所反映的文化背景知识是分不开的。了解英语文化知识,有助于交际畅通并有效地进行。相反,缺乏了解英语文化背景知识必然导致交际障碍、冲突和误解,也就是我们所说的“语用失误”。语言作为文化的一个组成部分,反映一个民族丰富多彩的方化现象。语言和文化之间是什么关系呢?这历来是人类学家、社会学家、语言学家,也是语言教学家关注的问题。语言是文化的载体,是文化的一部分,是文化存在的标志符号,没有语言,便没有文化。因而人们就把语言称作是反映民族文化的一面镜子。交际文化是指不同群体的人,在交际当中,由于对语言(包括非语言)交际所隐含的不同文化背景缺乏了解而容易产生误会与偏差的这一部分文化,也就是指暗含在语言内的文化因素。不了解交际文化就会直接影响交际,因而它应是语言教学的重要组成部分。交际文化确实是一个民族在以语言为主要媒介的交际过程中,表现出来的民族文化精神和行为模式,它折射出一个民族的习俗观念、价值观念、人际心理、社交礼仪及思维倾向等。交际文化本身是个系统,它包含的研究内容也十分丰富。在英语教学中,在搞好语言教学的同时,进行有关目的语的交际文化内容的教学――叫它文化融入也好、文化导入也好,渗透一些交际文化的内容是完全必要的,也是可能的。

二、跨文化交际与英语教学

在语言教学中开展文化教学,可通过多种方式进行,尤其应当把相应的文化知识贯穿于课堂语言教学之中,这样才能真正提高学生的英语素质。针对这一问题,语言学家胡文仲推荐了以下方法:(1)在教材里加入有关西方社会的风俗习惯和行为模式的内容;(2)就我国不同民族不同地区的文化习俗的区别,组织学生进行讨论;(3)利用英语录像和电影进行教学,然后组织讨论;(4)鼓励学生与外国人进行交流;(5)让学生读一些短篇故事或剧本,同时要求他们记下其中有意义的文化细节;(6)让学生多读一些有关跨文化交际方面的书籍;(7)举办有关文化习俗方面的讲座,同时,在有可能的情况下对比中国和其他国家不同的风俗习惯。课堂教学是培养学生跨文化交际能力的主要途径。通过借鉴以上的方法,教师应在日常教学过程中注意以下几点。

1.在课前预习过程中,有意识地培养学生自主查阅与课文内容相关的背景知识的良好习惯。在课堂做陈述(Presentation)的时候,鼓励那些语言功底较差、性格比较内向而不敢发言的学生,让他们做到有准备地发言,从而克服羞于开口的缺点;通过收集资料可以增进学生对英语国家文化知识的了解。此外,还可以引导学生多读英语报纸杂志,增加阅读量。多阅读一些介绍英美国家风土人情、文化方面的材料,既能帮助学生扩大词汇量,又能更好地了解外国文化,在有趣的阅读中学到相关的文化知识,从而使学生对文化更加感兴趣,更加容易地掌握这一知识。

2.运用图片、幻灯片、电影、电视等直观教具让学生了解外语国家的社会背景。影视内容可以涉及政治、经济、军事宗教、文化、科技、艺术、体育、教育等各个领域各个层面,可谓是包罗万象。通过观看一些具有一定思想内涵的英文影片,学生更能直观地感受相应的英语文化。此外,在英文影视片里,学生还可以通过学习英语习语来了解外语国家的文化知识,锻炼英语听力,学到一些现成的地道简洁的表达方式。

3.充分发挥学生的客体作用,训练学生的跨文化交际技能。学生要懂得对文化的差异性与多样性的了解是在跨文化实践中获得的,跨文化交际能力是动态的能力系统,跨文化交际实践是推动这一能力系统发展的强大动力。因此,学生要通过具体的实践,如听、说、读、写等训练来学习和理解外国文化知识。此外,学生也可以自己编排一些有关跨文化交际的场景,通过亲自参与到相似的交际场景中,在实践中体会跨文化交际中存在的困难,并通过化解,更好地理解跨文化交际。总之,学生应该不断丰富扩大社会文化知识和积极参与跨文化实践活动,从而增强对文化差异的敏感性,提高跨文化交际能力。

4.营造学习外语的氛围,提高学生的文化交际能力。针对大部分英语学习者是在母语国学习英语这一现实情况,有必要营造学习英语即跨文化交际的学习氛围,这样有助于学生转变长期形成的“英语+本国文化”的思维方式,在多元文化交流和沟通中进行自觉的文化移情和文化认同。总而言之,创造语境和情境能使学生在一种真实的语言环境中学习语言,并直接感受到语言在交际过程中的重要作用,使他们的跨文化交际能力得到锻炼和提高。

5.英语教师要具有跨文化交际的敏感性,改进教学方法。英语教师要认识到以提高学生跨文化交际能力为内容的英语教学改革是一个系统工程,教学方法要从以教师为中心、应试教育为主转为以学生为中心、以学生的跨文化交际能力提高为主;从以传统的基于课本的听、说、读、写为主转变为以能够从事实际的跨文化交际的听说、全面提高综合应用能力为主;从以老师讲、学生听的模式转变为网络课件教学、外语课外活动、学生主动式学习的模式。只有这样才能培养出能与外国人顺利交流,具有跨文化交际能力的综合型实用人才。

总之,英语教学中不能只单纯注意语言教学,还应导入相应国家的文化,重视语言文化差异及对语言的影响。美国外语教学专家WinstoBrembeck说:“采用只教语言不教文化的教学法,只能培养出语言流利的大傻瓜。”英语教师应充分认识到文化对语言学习的重要性,在教学中重视培养学生的跨文化交际意识和能力。只有这样,才能使学生真正学好英语,享受到英语学习的乐趣,并且在交际中正确使用英语。

参考文献:

[1]Scollon,R.&S.Scollon.Interculture Communication:A discourse Approach.Oxford:Blackwell Publisher.Ltd,1995.

[2]曹文.英语文化教学的两个层次.外语教学及研究,1998,(3).

[3]胡文仲.跨文化交际学概论.北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999.

篇6

一、引言

语言与文化有密切的关系：语言既塑造文化，又被文化所塑造；语言既反映社会现实，又对社会产生影响。跨文化交际是指不同文化背景群体之间的思想、信息等的交流，是不同文化背景群体之间的文化接触。目前，在中学英语教学中，不少教师对交际教学法、语言与文化的关系有一些模糊的认识，其一是：认为中学阶段英语教学主要目的应当是语言知识的教学（语言的准确性、语法的扩充、语法与句型知识等）；其二是认为目前中学教学内容相对简单，文化教学无法进行。这种模糊认识已经对中学生的日常交际产生了不良影响。

那么在日常教学活动中，教师应从哪些方面着手，对学生进行交际中的跨文化意识的培养，使学生了解英语国家的文化而学习外语，又通过了解语言背景去理解其文化，使二者互相贯通，互为表里，相互促进呢？我们认为有如下几点值得注意：

二、文化背景知识教学要贯穿于交际性语言教学的始终

1.不同的文化背景形成了不同的特定的语言表达方式。

语言产生各具特色，其交流方式就有很大差异。即使在同一种语言中，不同场合也要用不同的语言而表达。如：在英语里要表达歉意，可以说“Excuse me.”，也可以说“I’m sorry.”，但使用范围不同。如果无意中伤害了某人或有约而迟到了，可以说“Excuse me for being late.”或者“I’m sorry that I’m late.”。

在英语中，一个简单的见面问候，也因不同的情景而异。与人初次相识彼此问候，须用正式语言“How do you do？”其答语也只能是“How do you do？”；向熟人打招呼，多用问候身体状况的寒暄语“How are you？”；若只是一般随便向人打招呼，通常用“Hello/Hi，Good morning/afternoon”等。再如，打电话过程中简单的用语“你是谁？”“我是……”，其表达方式与汉语就不同，须用固定句式“Who is that？”“This is...speaking.”这就要求我们在英语语言教学中培养学生在跨文化接触时的适应能力。初次与不同的文化接触时，往往会受到文化冲击（Culture shock），从而产生某种不适应。要使交际得以继续下去，必须设法减缓冲击、提高适应能力。

在JEFC和SEFC教材中，上述交际语言在对话课中出现很多，在教学中随时可遇，而这些交际语言与我们民族的语言差异很大，因而要引导学生尊重这些文化差异，以客观、理智的态度来接受、学习，体会隐含在语言中的文化差异。

2.文化背景不同限制着交际过程中交流的内容和行为方式。

来自不同文化背景的人，在交际过程中所涉及的内容不同，通常所表达的行为亦有差异。如在我国新结识一个人总习惯于拉家常，问及家庭、工作、年龄、薪水等状况；而在英美国家人眼中，这些纯属个人私事，不是相当亲近的朋友是不能随便询问的，并视为不友善的行为，会引起别人的反感。因此在英美国家中，既要避免初次见面无话可说的尴尬局面，又要展开交流，就只好谈天说地、谈运动、谈晚会、谈比赛等，以求在爱好和欣赏上产生共识。例如，在英美国家中，受人邀请做客，赴约时尽可能正点；用餐时，你可以尽可能地去享受各种食物而无需担心会不礼貌，反而主人会因为你喜欢多食而感到高兴。

3.文化背景不同，在交际过程中，对方表达信息的反应不同。

一个女子若长得漂亮，或某人具有某种让人羡慕的东西或工作干得很出色等，遇上一个美国人当面就会道出些赞美之辞：“You are beautiful！”“How nice your coat is！”“What a good job/you’ve well done！”等。然而要一个普通的中国女子正面接受一个陌生人或不了解的男子对自己容颜的夸赞，那是不可能的，甚至会引起严重的误解。西方文化强调自我，如果按照中国传统习惯，以恭谦的方式作出反应，道出“不”“不怎么样”“哪里”等语，那就会引起很大的误会，甚至无意中伤害了别人。人家会觉得你认为他是一个说假话、浮夸的人。你应当对这些赞美之辞理所当然地接受，并用“Thank you”来回应他。

三、在教学过程中，对一些词句的教学有必要进行文化背景知识介绍

众所周知，英国在历史的发展过程中历经沧桑，这无疑对其文化的丰富和发展起到了促进作用。既然英语是一种多民族的混合体，这就使它的产生背景更神秘，更复杂了。如猪、羊、牛活着时被称为pig，sheep，cow或ox，而宰杀后上了餐桌就成了pork，mutton，beef。这是因为英国本地人Saxons（撒克逊人）把它们喂养大后上贡给Normans（诺曼人），宰杀后变成美味佳肴被法国人享用时，就变为法语了。英国中很多词，就是在这种背景下产生的。外来语不断融进英语中，而词汇本身也会因历史文化的变迁发生一些或进或退周期性的变化，如Negro一词，过去提到美国黑人时，用Negroes，而种族歧视主义者则称他们为Blacks，大约从20世纪五六十年代起，黑人掀起了反种族歧视运动（高中英语第二册下），开始为自己的肤色感到骄傲，于是自己改用了Black或the Black people，Negro这个词反倒被认为含有贬义，很少使用。同时，一种语言在形成和发展过程中会吸收很多典故，形成文化经典，用以纪念古人或告诫后人。如经常遇到的Sandwich，jeep，cat’s paw等词组或成语都各有其来源背景。再者，对一些成语更不能望文生义，以免造成笑话。例如：Let the cat out of the bag.（无意中泄露了机密）。在这里，解决问题的关键是在教学中尽可能给学生讲清两种政治文化背景在具体词汇上的烙印，否则是不可能达到准确运用的。

四、语言材料的教学离不开文化背景知识的教学

文化教学可以帮助学生把握学科内及跨学科之间的联系。培养学生的跨文化意识，对理解语言尤为重要。在教学中，可以将课文背后的西方价值观作为主线，把课本中散落的文化知识点贯串起来，也可采用“文化旁白”（胡文仲、高一虹，1995）的方法，给学生加入文化知识的介绍和讨论。例如学习China Daily时，可以介绍当今世界的几种大报，以及它们的政治倾向和读者群等。JEFC和SEFC教材中有不少课文是文学名篇，教师可以以此帮助学生领悟文章的美感。因为文学作品是了解一个民族文化的镜子，能生动具体地反映该民族的心理状态、文化特点、风俗习惯、社会关系等。高中第三册的“The Merchant of Venice”是语言大师莎士比亚的作品，具有代表性，因而教师可以引导学生根据人物对话的特色，从欣赏入手，去领会人物的性格特征。

语言学家格林说：“我们的语言就是我们的文化。”因此，不了解文化，想要轻松地学习、熟练地运用体现该种文化的语言几乎是不可能的。其实，学习外语最大的障碍是由文化语言的生疏带来的心理隔阂。外语教育专家认为：交际中的错误主要有两种，语言错误和文化错误，并认为后者的性质更为严重。再者，外语教学的最终目的是语言应用能力的培养，学习一种语言必然要学习这种语言所代表的文化。这就要求我们在教学活动中有意识、有步骤地对学生进行跨文化意识的培养，“增进学生对外国，特别是英语国家的了解”（大纲语），对英语语言有更深的了解，从而更好地掌握英语语言，成为能与其他民族和文化正常交往的新一代，能为中华民族自立于世界民族之林作出贡献。

参考文献：

［1］杜瑞清，田德新.跨文化交际学.西安交通大学出版社，2001.

［2］胡文仲.跨文化交际概论.外语教学与研究出版社，1999.

［3］Sandra，L.M.Nancy，H.，Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching.Shanghai Language and Teaching Reach Press，1999.

［4］杨平泽.非英语国家的英语教学中的文化问题.国外外语教学，1995，（1）.

篇7

中国英语教学长期以来一直以提高学生的语言技能为中心，在实践中也已取得了巨大的成就。但是对英语教学在培养学生语言基本技能之外的跨文化交际能力却没有给予足够的重视。中国与世界的交往日益密切，这一英语教学的大环境要求我们在英语教学中进行跨文化交际教学，提高学生的跨文化交际能力。

一、英语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的原因

英语教学之所以要注重对学生跨文化交际能力的培养是因为中西文化存在着差异。中西方文化的差异体现在生活的各个方面，比如称谓、问候、介绍、询问等各个方面。具体来讲，有以下几个方面：

1.价值观念的差异。价值观念是文化的核心，不了解一个民族的价值观念，就不会充分理解该民族的语言表达方式和行为模式，很容易造成跨文化交际中的语用失误。

2.伦理道德观念的差异。伦理道德的差异也是造成跨文化交际失误的重要原因之一。中国人习惯透明生活，个人的行为和意志常受到周围无数有形无形的制约，不太在意隐私权。相比之下，西方社会在价值观念上十分重视个人的权利与自由，重视法律上的人人平等。

3.民族习惯和思维方式的差异。民族习惯是指一民族在长期的历史发展过程中逐渐形成、反复出现并世代相习的生活方式。民族习惯生动地体现一个民族的生活习惯、行为方式、伦理观念等方面的传统特点，是构成民族文化历史的主体。民族习惯一旦产生，会对该民族成员的思想和行为产生极大的约束作用。

可见，中西文化的差异是无处不在的。所以，如果在英语教学中不注重跨文化交际的教学，在实际交往中就会出现尴尬的局面，造成交际失误，影响交际质量。

二、英语教学中导入跨文化交际教学的重要性

如前所述，中西文化在交往的各个领域都存在或多或少的差异，那么在教学中进行跨文化交际教学就十分重要了。在教学中伴以文化的导入，会使英语学习多姿多彩，能提高学生的学习兴趣。跨文化交际是发生在两个不同文化负担者之间的，所以双方只有充分了解彼此的文化，了解文化的异同，才能成功地交流。因此，在实践中，通过将语言和文化相结合，增强学生的文化差异和跨文化意识，培养学生的跨文化交际能力就十分必要。

三、如何在英语教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力

在英语教学中，跨文化交际的教学也是有章可循的。如教师可以根据教科书上的内容讲解与其相对应的背景知识，把文化知识的介绍自始至终贯穿于整个教学活动之中；也可以用比较法，在重视所学语言国家的文化习俗的同时，引导学生学习自己的民族文化，关注不同文化的差异，从而更好地把握和运用所学的语言比较母语文化与目的语文化之间的异同，分析“同”，增强语言习得中的“正迁移”，指出“异”，防止“负迁移”，使学生充分了解母语和目标语文化的异同，在交际实践中尽可能地避免“负迁移”。教师还可利用辅助教学设备，如录像、电影等，使学生直观生动地了解英语国家的文化，增强学生对文化差异的敏感性。同时，教师还可以组织一些英语活动，如表演话剧、英语角、外教课等，尽量给学生提供能运用语言的环境，使学生在轻松愉快的气氛中学到文化知识。

此外，因为单词是英语语言的“细胞”，所以教师对学生跨文化交际意识的培养必须从单词、短语入手。单词、短语的含义常因说话人的年龄、性别、社会地位、方言、说话目的等不同而有所变化，所以在遣词造句上要注意以下情况：

1.语域。语域指在具体条件下习惯应用的语言形式。如，在与人打招呼时，何时用“How are you？”何时用“How do you do？”或“Hello！”“Good morning！”等。再如，表示女孩漂亮用“nice”，表示男孩英俊用“handsome”，要避免用错。

2.搭配。英语中有些单词搭配力强，应熟练掌握、正确理解和运用。如学到“man”就可以扩大学习policeman，postman及词组play the man 等。

3.同义词和反义词。英语单词的意义往往可以运用同义词和反义词来表达。要想尽可能地运用英语进行交际，就应该重视同义词和反义词的运用。例如，在谈到“不同的”这个概念时，如果一时忘了“different”这个词，还可用“not the same”来表达，同样可以达到交际目的。

随着中西文化交流不断扩大，跨文化交际越来越被人们所重视。不同语言、不同文化背景的人要成功地进行交流，语言是基础，而跨文化交际能力和意识更为重要。成功的跨文化交际不仅需要我们具备良好的语言能力，而且也需要了解彼此文化间的差异，增强对目的语文化的领悟力，提高社会文化能力。中只有这样，才能避免因文化差异而带来的跨文化语用失误。教师在英语教学中，应以培养学生的语言实际运用能力和跨语言交际能力为基本出发点，在实际教学中注重文化的导入，切实提高学生的能力。

参考文献：

[1]高远.对比分析与错误分析[M].北京：北京航空航天大学出版社，2002.

[2]胡文仲.文化与交际[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1994.

[3]张公谨，丁石庆.文化语言学教程[M].北京：教育科学出版社，2004.

篇8

中图分类号：H03

文献标识码：A

文章编号：1673-2111(2008)11-003-03

作者：陈建生，长沙理工大学外国语学院教授，博士；李杨源，长沙理工大学08级在读硕士研究生

基金项目：语言非任意性研究。湖南省教育厅(2007)

引言

在跨文化交际中，汉英两个民族之差异会表现在文化背景、价值取向、社会规约等方面。一旦交际中的两个不同民族的人们忽略了它们，或不能设身处地地理解对方在这些方面的差异，或把一己之文化准则与社会规约强加于对方的同一领域，并视其为评价与解释对方行为之标准，语用迁移就产生了，它的产生表明双方的交际以失败而终。

语用失败的问题由来已久，目前已越来越引起人们的重视与关注，各路专家对此已有言在先。社会语言学家恩.沃尔逊(N.Wolson)于1989年提出了自己的观点，认为语用失败最终所显示出来的是因语用迁移所致的言语行为之施为力已荡然无存，即不能在既定领域产生任何影响，尤其是社会影响。因此，人们谓之社会语用失败。托马斯(Thomas)曾经在谈及社会语用规约时也持此观点，他同时指出了语用失误的严重性，认为“语法错误可能使人不愉快，或影响交际，但至少在规则上，它们是一清二楚的，听话人会立即感受到它的存在；而且一旦意识到说话人的语法能力较弱，对其是容忍的。然而，语用失败则不然，如果一个非本族语者说话流利，对方不会把其明显的不礼貌或不友好的行为归因为语言缺陷，而会认为是粗鲁和恶意的自然流露。语法错误可能显示出说话人还没有获得一定的语言能力，语用错误可能反映出说话人的人格有毛病”(Maletzke，1996)。

诚然，各国各地区多样的文化才使得整个世界变得丰富多彩。文化的多元性也使得因语用迁移所致的理解失误时有发生。在此情况下，交际难以成功，或交际者不能遵循交际规约，也不能使施为之力产生作用，更不能实现既定的目标。

汉英跨文化交际中的语用迁移现象主要表现在如下一些方面：

一、与人打招呼

见面打招呼是一种社会模式，而且是一种约定俗成的行为模式，常人在乎它，他们将见面不打招呼视为一种无礼的行为：社会学家、语言学家也在乎它，他们认为“打招呼”能够揭示见面时双方的关系，并表现为言语行为的一种固定模式。见面打招呼或交谈等是任何一个民族文化中都少不了的。汉英两个民族均有自己的招呼语，而且其招呼语有各自不同的民族特点与文化特质。从形式上看，“招呼语”有两种：命题式与非命题式。中国人见面打招呼就有明知故问式、拉家常式等。且看，一天早上路过一处时，一国人发现一熟人在修汽车，他如此地向熟人打招呼：“你在修汽车?”国人打的这种招呼是一种命题式的招呼；而英国人则会如此打招呼：“Hello，Good morning!”英国人打的这种招呼则是一种非命题式的。国人打招呼的口头禅可谓多了，听人说得最多的是“你去上班吗?”“你吃饭了吗?”有时某人士从WC出来，这时有人会冲他／她招呼道：“你从哪里来?吃饭了吗?”真是既煞风景又伤雅气。那么英国人会如此作为吗?按其打招呼的模式，他们是不会这般作为的。因此，千万不可视中国人的口头禅为英国人的打招呼的用语。英国人认为，

“Have you hadyour meal?”是要对方作出回答的一种正式提问。由此可推断，如果无心邀请对方外出美餐一顿，是不可以发此问的，说了非但不能融洽彼此的关系，反而产生消极影响，同时英国人会感到对方在有意作弄他／她或拿其开心，因而感到尴尬或不开心。由于中国人很在意或重视吃，所以中国的饮食文化特别发达，当然这也必然会要反映到日常生活中来。

二、交谈话题

因文化差异所致的不同社会言语行为规约，使得汉英民族所谈及的话题内容的侧重点不同，所表现出来的兴趣差异也悬殊。上面已经说了中国的饮食文化特别发达，同时自古以来中国也是一个农业大国，从古时起人们就讲究吃，信奉比上不足比下有余的生活之道，生活节奏相比之下慢于工商业较发达的西方国家，谈吃与拉家常的机会明显多于西方人；此外，周围环境的差异使得中国人和英国人见面之后的问候之余，感兴趣的话题各有不同。英国人喜欢谈“天”、谈旅游，而中国人喜欢谈“吃”、“拉家常”式地天涯海角式地聊个没完没了、无所不谈。但应该注意这种闲聊是内外有别的，和英国人或其他西方人闲聊应避免谈及如下话题：

How old are you?(您多大年纪了?)

Are you married?(你结婚了吗?)

Do you have any children?(您有孩子吗?)

How much d0 you earn per month?(您每个月挣多少钱?)

Do you haye a happy home life?(你的家庭生活幸福吗?)

上述问题均是中国人第一次见面寒暄时要问及的，而且使用频率极高，在中国文化的范围内使用它们，自然是无可指责的。但在跨文化交际中，这些用作寒暄的问题是应该避免的，因为英国等西方人视其一种打听对方隐私的行为，在他们看来这是不妥、不可取的；这只有在法庭或警察那里才有可能发生。因此，在一般和谐的交际中，不可随意地向英国人问及婚姻、家庭、子女情况、年龄、工资收入、夫妻生活等，特别是被问及者在相关方面有难言之隐或遭不幸：年老了；离婚了；孩子夭折了；遭人抢劫了；夫妻生活不和谐或吵吵闹闹；甚至身体发胖了、考试未过、挨了别人的打，即凡是触及他人痛处的方面都要尽量避免谈及。

笔者曾耳闻目睹一位学生在与一英国老太太交谈时，提了这个问题：How old are you?老太太刹那间脸上现出苦苦的样子，说“Ah，it is a secret!”一方面，从文化上讲，如上所述英国文化主张交谈时(尤其是与关系一般的人或陌生人或老年人交谈时)，双方应尽量避免谈及年龄，否则被视为侵犯他人隐私或对他人不尊重，另一方面，现在人人尽享因科技的发展、社会的进步所带来的美好生活，从心理上说谁都想青春永驻，长生不老，也不想让年龄给自己带来精神压力。据笔者调查，如今不论是中国人还是英国人或其他西方人，在涉及年龄的问题上，彼此都很谨慎，特别是过上了好日子的人，都尽可能地避谈它，因此可以说经济的发展促使文化发生变化，而调查发现过苦日子的人根本就不在乎问年龄，甚至他们中有不少的人还抱怨 自己为何不早点死，活着受苦有啥意思，认为自己不配做人，给他人给社会添麻烦，是社会的累赘。

文化也随一个民族的社会观念的变化而变化，旧社会，侵略者就不把中国人或说中华民族当人看，侵略者肆无忌惮地侮辱中国人，而那时的中国人看着“华人与狗不得入内”，就只得咬紧牙关无声地气。现在时代不同了，中国人也不是好欺负的了，我们的综合国力、国际地位已发生了翻天覆地的变化。国内的学者、外语培训师们也应该教教外国人：他们在来中国之前，也应该好好学习并了解中国文化，以便消除过去的霸道作风，知道随时随地在与中国人交谈时应谈什么、什么应该避谈；笔者发现西方学者、教师在著述、施教时常常教导外国人怎样尊重他们的文化，怎样避免冒犯他们。可我们国内的学者们在谈跨文化交际时，总是片面地强调交际双方应该避免和英国人或西方人发生因文化差异产生的碰撞或矛盾冲突，但从来没有教导过外国人怎样注意尊重中国文化、尊重中国人，这样就不可避免地会使外国人尤其是西方人误以为中华民族是一个生来就很“贱”的民族，无尊严可言，任何人都可以在中国人面前犯忌、胡说八道，任何西方人都可以冒犯、都可以诋毁这个民族中的任何人。

现在的中国人也有与西方文化相同的禁忌，如人发胖了，过去人们认为中国人不忌讳它。现引包惠南老师在《文化语境与语言翻译》中的一段话为证：

一见面是寒暄，寒暄之后说我“胖了”，说我“胖了”之后即大骂其新党。(鲁迅《祝福》)

When we met，after exchanging a few pol iteremarks he said I was fatter，and after sayingthat immediately sarted a violent attack on therevolutionaries，(Foreign Languages Press，1972)

译文将“胖了”直译为“fatter”这容易引起西方读者的误解。中国人对于“说我胖了”，容易理解，这是中国人重逢时常用的寒暄语之一，“胖了”的意思是“发福了”；然而英美人不仅无此礼仪习惯，更忌讳肥胖，很容易把“说我胖了”误解成是一方对另一方的提醒或告诫，因此译文中宜增译解释性词语，以准确传达原句语义：

After exchanging a few polite remarks whenwe met，he observed that I looked“fat”，and having made that complimentary remark he started aviolent attack on the revolutionaries，(包惠南，2001：21)

从包老师所言来看，说“胖了”是中国人重逢时常用的寒暄语之一，意思是说它是中国人能接受的寒暄语、是一种礼仪，只有英美人无此礼仪习惯，更忌讳之。笔者认为说“胖了”如今并非是中国人见面时常用的寒喧语，也不是什么礼仪习惯，相反越来越多的人忌讳他人说自己“胖了”。因此，也要开始教导西方人在中国同样不可随便对一个中国人说“你胖了”。

还有其他一些源自传统文化的禁忌，在这些方面西方人是不可以冒犯的。比如说，中国传统文化视“无后”即所谓的“断子绝孙”为最大的不幸与耻辱，这与西方文化差异很大，在此方面告诫西方人是十分必要的。以下引包惠南老师在《文化语境与语言翻译》中的一段话为证：

“这断子绝孙的阿Q”，远远地听到小尼姑的带哭的声音。(鲁迅《阿Q正传》)

“Ah Q，may you die sonless!”sounded the lit－tle nun’s voice tearfully in the distance，

“不孝有三，无后为大”是中国的封建传统道德观念，一个家庭没有子嗣是最大的不幸，不生儿育女是对祖宗的最大不孝，时至今日这种传统的观念依然根深蒂固，这是数千年来形成的一种民族心理；在中国人的观念中，骂人“断子绝孙”是最刻薄的咒语。而在西方社会，这种观念要淡薄得多，尤其在追求享乐的现代年轻人中，独身主义蔚然成风，断子绝孙对个人和家庭而言无足轻重，因此英美读者不可能译文中“sonless”文化含义，因而译文中必须加上一条注释：――a curseintolerable to ear in China，才能使译语读者确切理解全句的语用含义。

以上例证表明，在中西文化交流中，交际双方在话题的选择上是不一致或不尽一致的，不可用热情或寒暄来替代各自文化的规约性，不要以为本民族文化与外来文化是相通的。

三、观念与风格

中国是世界上四大文明古国中最大的一国，也是古文化丰富多彩、文物最多、民族传统与风俗习惯受国家保护的如今人人享有人权的大国。中华民族具有独特人文传统，她与欧美人之间的差异比较大，在对待某些事务方面观念常有差异，欧美人对与他人见面，提倡提前预约，否则会遭遇拒绝。中国人多数情况下则认为提前预约实在没有必要，只要你想来你就来吧，讲那么规矩干什么。但是随着西方文化的不断渗透、工作的日益繁忙及各种压力对人的影响，部分城里的中国人也开始有了点西方式的预约色彩，但不是主流。预约对坚持中华文化传统的人则会产生负迁移。在中国人的传统观念里“沉默是金”即当有人向你发问时，在沉默与作答之间你可以选择沉默，但对方在心理上可能会有些不快，不过很快就会得到谅解。这与实际交往中的芬兰文化有相似之处，即芬兰文化允许交际双方相对而坐并在较长一段时间内沉默不语：可西方人对所提问题的要求是必须作答，即使是文不对题或答非所问也无妨，你就是必须说。旧的中国习俗把家里来了客人看得很重，和客人一起用餐时，女性与小孩皆回避，即他们都不得和客人在同一餐桌上吃饭，而多半是呆在厨房里吃饭，而且被要求席间笑莫露齿话莫高声。有的家长如果只有一个小孩――宝贝儿子，家长有时会把他叫来和客人一起进餐。但这只是极个别现象(据笔者考察有相当一部分距城镇较远的农村地区仍保留着这种被称为不合时宜的文化)。比较而言，俄罗斯文化却不但允许小孩说话，而且鼓励他们这样做；而在美国文化中恰恰不同。言谈贯穿于整个交往之中。中国人对有人在问及某某何时能回家或何时能办成某事时，往往会如此回答说“三两天”，“三两天”是什么呢?起码，这不是一个确切的时间。我们知道国内译界多将它译为“a couple of days”这种译法是精确的还是模糊的，笔者想把它交给大家去讨论。“Money is every－thing”所传递的西方人的观念，就是“金钱万能”，“有钱就有一切”。这与中国传统文化所传达的“钱财如粪土，仁义值千金”、“有钱不等于拥有一切”、“有钱不等于拥有幸福”可以说格格不入。因此，学习英语的人就得知道在跨文化交际中应该怎样消除这些负面的影响因素。

篇9

计算机网络文化是当今信息社会发展的一个重要现象。随着社会文明的向前发展，它在人们的文化生活中渐渐成为大众的“宠儿”。随之而来的影响力也大大的增强，并引起了全社会的高度关注。

一、网络文化

所谓网络文化是指通过因特网把人类的各种文化信息传输给世界各地人们，以便其互动交流、学习浏览、娱乐游戏、教学竞赛等等所产生的文化现象和文化活动。可见，网络文化让人们更加方便、快捷、丰富多彩地接受文化信息，提高了人们的工作、学习、生活质量和效率。

网络文化是这个时代的特征和一种新的文化现象。任何一种文化在走向社会的同时，都会对人特别是大中小学生带来正、负两方面的影响。我认为对高校大学生负面的影响主要表现如下：

1、垃圾信息和不健康的网络文化产品充诉文化市场死角，污染了广大青年人的心灵。

2、青年学生把很多的宝贵时间花在了网上聊天、网上约会、网上购物上，致使轻者学习成绩下降，重者荒废了学业，甚者崇拜黑客而制作病毒最终身不由己地滑向犯罪的深渊。

面对网络文化的负面影响，首先要及时构筑一道有效的网络文化“防火墙”，积极传播“无公害”、“无污染”的网络文化信息产品。其次，开发校园道德网站，研发、弘扬民族传统文化、传统美德等一切有益于人类健康、科技、智力、教育等多层次、多形式的网络文化软件产品，使未成年人免遭有害网络文化的影响，让青年人在健康的网络文化“防火墙”中茁壮成长。最后，加强对学生的思想道德与遵纪守法及网络自护的教育，使他们树立起正确的人生观、世界观、价值观，避免学生登录不良网站，以免受到网络侵害或引发违法犯罪。

但是，网络文化毕竟是时代进步的标志物，他不仅给人们带来一种全新的生活和学习方式，同时也在积极深刻地影响并潜移默化地改变着人们的认知、情感、思维与心理。

首先，网络是包罗万象的信息宝库。因为它信息量大，可实现全球信息共享，是一个浓缩了的百科全书式的世界。大学生在网上浏览世界，认识世界，了解世界最新的新闻信息、科技动态，极大地开阔了学生的视野，给学习、生活带来了巨大的便利和乐趣。

其次是快捷方便，可“足不出户尽知天下事”，亦可足不出户办事情。大学生在网上可以方便、迅速地获得自己的需求，交流速度快、自由度强。对于大学生来说，网络是不可回避的东西，我们不必因噎废食，要科学引导青年人合理合法上网，并用现代科学的发展观来指导网络文化建设。

二、网络文化对大学英语教学的影响

如今，网络文化已经成为大学校园各种活动中不可或缺的形式。网络媒体技术既给大学英语的传统教学模式带来巨大的冲击与挑战，也对大学英语教学改革起到很大的推动作用。

传统的大学英语教学一直以来以教材为主，以教师为中心，以课堂知识传授为主，以应试为目的的。那是一种教学模式单一、手段有限、内容单调的教学方式。英语网络多媒体的出现，推动和优化了外语教学环境，为英语教学提供了图文并茂的多感官综合刺激，使学生真正变被动学习为主动学习，提高了大学生的综合素质。

1、教学就是教师的“教”与学生的“学”两方面的互动关系。传统的教学以教师为主，在现代多媒体教学中学生和教师都是教学的信息源，从而可以改变以往教师为中心和单向灌输的封闭式教学模式，真正实现以学生为本的育人新理念。但我认为，教师永远是课堂教学的主导，学生是课堂教学的主体，在以教师为主导的各个教学环节中都必须让学生开动脑筋，提出意见，主动学习。而多媒体技术的采用，虽然有利于提高教学的效率，但是否能达到这个目的，取决于教师，多媒体永远处在被支配的地位，是教师教学活动的工具。所以作为一种辅助手段的网络媒体，具有一定的局限性，只有将传统教学手段与多媒体辅助教学结合才能更好地提高大学英语教学质量。

2、交际能力是人的素质之一。网络多媒体英语教学是一种由网络环境支持的多媒体教学，它突破了传统教学的时空限制，使师生在虚拟的空间里进行广泛而丰富的交流，有利于实施素质教育。

3、网路是由若干台电脑和使用者在不同地方无数的LAN和WAN共同组成。在Internet上面是没有国界种族之分的，只要连上去在地球另一边的电脑和您室友的电脑其实没有什么两样的。所以多媒体网络英语教学的灵活性可以使学生选择他们方便的时间和地点，利用网络课件或光盘达到学习的目的。这种运用多媒体网络模式的英语教学在教师合适模式的教学管理范围内，形成了师生、人机互动的多样化，使师生间的关系处于和谐状态，同时充分体现了以学生为中心，注重培养学生运用英语进行交际的现代素质教育观。

4、英语多媒体网络教学对英语教师各方面的能力提出了挑战。在新的形势下，要求教师必须改变以往的旧方法，熟练掌握网络程序和语言，合理利用每一种媒体，使媒体之间相互配合，达到优化的目的。

三、通过网络，增强外语交际能力

交际能力是由美国社会语言学家Hymes 针对Chomsky 的“语言能力”提出来的。从一般意义上说，交际能力是一个人整体素质，是人运用各种可能的语言和非语言手段来达到某种交际目的的能力。

我们说要培养学生英语的交际能力，实际上就是要培养学生的听、说、读、写等方面的综合能力。就目前我国大学生的外语交际能力来看不容乐观。我国以前的英语教学以应付考试为主，在具体教学中重视语法和阅读，忽略了听、说能力的培养，一旦要与人交流时就发现无法交流，听不懂说不出，“哑巴英语”、“费时多，收效低”的现象十分普遍。究其原因，笔者觉得原因有很多，如文化差异、心理因素、环境因素等，其中文化差异是十分重要的原因。因此，加强文化修养，努力培养自己的跨文化意识，及时更新知识，树立信心，才能更好地提高外语交际能力。 转贴于 1、在网络外语教学中注重学生跨文化意识的培养。

跨文化意识是指对异国文化与本国文化的异同的敏感度和调整自己的语言理解和语言产出的自觉性。外语学习不但要学习外族语言，更要学习外族文化，因此，外语教学中跨文化意识显得尤其重要。

语言是人类的祖先世代积累起来的极宝贵的财富。语言与文化关系密切，可以说是共生的。语言是文化产生和发展的关键，文化的发展也使语言更加丰富和细密。语言的学习与交际能力培养实际上是获得进一步的文化知识的必要前提。所以，从某种意义上说，要想提高外语交际能力，跨文化意识的培养显得十分重要。在外语教学中，作为教师注重培养学生的跨文化意识和外语交际能力，就首先必须在外语教学中注重文化的导入。

著名专家McMeniman和 Evans都曾指出“外语教学是一种文化最明显的表现”。因此，高校大学英语教学的文化导入十分讲究，并不是简单的介绍背景文化知识就可以了。在文化导入时，教师应注意以下几点：第一，要因人而异，因材施教。选择的学习内容必须与学生的兴趣密切相关，这样才能激发学生的学习兴趣。第二，要循序渐进。由于学生的语言水平和基础能力不同，选择外国语言文化内容一定要由简单到复杂，由浅到深程序进行，逐步帮助学生开拓视野，进而提高跨文化交际能力和跨文化意识。我认为在注重这两点的基础上，教师还应鼓励学生课后利用网络等现代学习工具自主查找相关知识，自主阅读和实践，以积累文化知识，逐步形成跨文化意识。

大学英语教学既不能抛开文化进行纯语言技巧训练，也不可固守传统，将文化只看做是语言学习的背景知识。而应从英语语言环境入手，引领学生理解英语语言的文化内涵。比如：教师在讲到与圣诞节有关的内容时，可结合词汇详细把圣诞节的文化色彩传授给学生，并自始至终地将文化的理解和语言的传授贯穿在课堂当中，那样学生在潜移默化的氛围里感悟到英语学习的过程正是感受其文化的过程。

此外，教师要做好跨文化交际的表率。教师的一举一动，言谈举止，无不影响着学生，因此，在课堂中，教师尽量体现出自己的跨文化意识，起表率作用。

2、着重培养听说意识，提高外语交际能力。

英语不是我们的母语，但英语是国际通用的语言，也许以后我国公民亦可通过英语获取信息和与世界各国进行文化艺术等方面的交流，为此必须提高人们的外语交际能力。而我国学生外语交际能力是最薄弱的环节，加强这个环节是英语教学的重要任务和内容。而听说方面的训练和培养，一个有效的办法就是运用现代的多媒体教学手段，如看录像，电影，欣赏外文歌曲等等都是很好提高外语交际能力的方式。课外，教学有关部门可利用周末或课余时间组织学生观看经典影片，让学生在欣赏影片后复述影片内容，发表自己的一些看法，锻炼口才。在提高口语表达能力的同时，也积累相当的跨文化意识，从而提高青年人的外语交际能力。

总之，教师若能从平时的教学各个方面注意培养学生的跨文化意识，则能有效地提高学生的外语交际能力。

四、结语

综上所述，在网络文化背景下的大学英语教学对提高大学生英语水平的作用不可忽视，网络多媒体可以充分发挥声、电、光、影、色等多元素的功能，把抽象枯燥的单词、短语、语法知识转化成活泼的文字、图像、视频，让学生的听觉、视觉同时得到刺激，从而激发学习兴趣。所以，在英语教学中，英语教师在遵循教学原则的基础上，优化网络多媒体与传统的教学模式，扬长避短，使之为提高大学英语教学服务。

参考文献

[1]、李频华，网络语言背后的文化心理特质，宁德师专学报，2004年第4期

[2]、邓炎昌、刘润清，《语言与文化：英汉语言文化对比》，外语教学与研究出版社，1989。

[3]、贾玉新，跨文化交际学，上海外语教育出版社，2002。

篇10

近年来，随着我国改革开放的发展和我国与国际间的经济、科技、文化交流日益频繁，人们越来越重视外国文化问题。同时，我们也逐渐认识到了了解外国文化在对外交往中的重要性。在教育领域中，外语教学也渐渐重视对学生交际能力的培养。然而，对许多老师而言，文化教学还是一个较新的概念，从跨文化角度对英语教学进行研究探讨在目前还是个新领域。我们必须认识到交际能力的培养是外语教学的主要目标，培养学生跨文化交际的技能是中学外语教学要达到的一个目标。文化教学在中学英语教学中的重要性不可忽视，英语学习者不了解英语国家的文化，就无法获得交际能力。因此在中学英语口语教学中应该目标明确地，循序渐进地，方法得当地导入文化教学，使英语学习者在学习语言和知识的同时受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交际中游刃有余。

关键词： 跨文化交际；文化教学；中学英语口语教学

ABSTRACT

Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.

Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching

Contents

1. Introduction 2

2. the concept of intercultural communication 3

2.1 Literature review 3

2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4

3.A survey based on classroom observations 7

3.1 The analysis of interviews 7

3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7

3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9

3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10

3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12

4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15

4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17

4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17

4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17

4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19

5. Conclusion 25

Acknowledgements 26

References 27

AppendixⅠ 28

1． Introduction

Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.

   Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.

    However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.

   As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.

   So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.

2. The concept of intercultural communication

2.1 Literature review

More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.

In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.

In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.

Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.

Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.

Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.

2.2 Definition of intercultural communication

“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.

Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.

Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.

2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication

Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]

If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…

Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.

2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school

The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.

Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.

3. A survey based on classroom observations

Survey date: 25/02/2009

Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.

Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school.  30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.

The objective of this survey is to investigate:

1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning

2) Current situation of students’ information input.

3.1 The analysis of interviews

     Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:

 (1)  Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;

 (2)  Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.

 (3)  Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.

 In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).

Table1. Results of the Interview

                               

Positive attitudes  Percentage

Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)

Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)

Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)

    These students’ responses reveal the following information:

    Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.

    According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?

3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire

The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:

 1. Strongly Agree (SA)　2. Agree (A)　3. Disagree (D)　4. Strongly Disagree (SD)

 According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.

3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)

  This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.

3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)

Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire

                                    

 SA A D SD

1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning  60.29％  31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％

2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary  17.35％  69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％

3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning  44.90％  53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％

4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance   50.00％  48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％

5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on   39.80％  60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％

                                              

Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.

3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire

     With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to

have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.

Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire

Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview

(open-ended) Questionnaire

(close-ended)

Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％  91.94％

Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％

Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％

From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?

3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)

     This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.

1) Integrative motivation

Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.

.2) Instrumental Motivation

In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.

Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire

                                      

 SA A    D  SD

6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％

7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％

8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills  2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％

9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％

As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.

In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the  present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.

3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum

It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.

                     Table5. Courses Information

Course Duration Teacherˊs background

Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese

 Communication  between cultures the 7th term New Zealander

American literature  the 7th term Chinese

An Outline Introduction to Britain and America  the 7th term Canadian

Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.

From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native  culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.

Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,

4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence

Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].

Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:

----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)

----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures

----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)

----Be aware of how they see the target culture

4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization

Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.

4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge

Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.

4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching

The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.

4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school

After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.

4.2.1 Some strategies to learners

4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness

Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.

      Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.

      Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.

4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences

   There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.

4.2.1.3 The development of empathy

  In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.

     To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:

(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into

the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.

(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle

school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.

(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they

can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.

4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers

Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.

    We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.

 

4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school

  Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:

(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.

(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.

(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.

(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.

(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.

(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.

(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.

    Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.

    For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.

Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.

As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.

Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.

4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.

(1) Plays in and out of class

It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.

The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.

In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.

    A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.

     Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom. 

     (2) Classroom presentation

     At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.

     (3) Photo display

     Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.

     (4) Song appreciation

     The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.

     (5) Foreign festivals on the campus

    This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.

    (6) Using authentic materials

      Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.

 Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.

5. Conclusion

Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.

     In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.

     Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.

And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

References

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[3] Ciccarelli, A. Teaching Culture through Language: Suggestions for the Italian Language Class.[A]. Italica，(1996)

[4] Crookes, G. & Schmidt, R. Motivation: Reopening the Research Agenda[A]. Language learning (1991)

[5] Falk, J. Linguistics and Language: A survey of Basic Concepts and Implications (2nd Ed.) [M] John Wiley and Sons (1978)

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[7] Herron, C., Cole, S. P., Corrie, C., & Dubreil, S. The Effectiveness of Video-based Curriculum in Teaching Culture[J]. The Modern Language Journal, (1999)

[8] Kramsch, C. Context and Culture in Language Teaching[N]. Oxford University Press (1933)

[9] Stephens, J.L. Teaching Culture and Improving Language Skills Through A Cinematic Lens. A Course On Spanish Film in The Undergraduate Spanish Curriculum[J]. ADFL Bulletin, (2001)

[10] Tylor, E.B. Primitive Culture[N]. Gordon Press (1981)

[11] Samover,larryA.2000. Communication between, cultures. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

[12] Kramsch, Claire..Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000.

[13] 胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概念[M]. 北京：外语教学与出版社，1999

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AppendixⅠ

*Questionnaire:

 Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning    

2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary    

3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning     

4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance    

5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on    

6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning    

7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation    

8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills     

9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.    

诚 信 承 诺

我谨在此承诺：本人所写的毕业论文《论中学英语口语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养》均系本人独立完成，没有抄袭行为，凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料，均作了注释，若有不实，后果由本人承担。

 

篇11

 

问候语作为人类社会一种普遍存在的现象，其主要功能就是运用礼貌的语言行为来维护社会秩序，建立和保持良好的人际关系，避免交际中不必要的误会与冲突，实现成功交流的目的。不同语言、不同文化习俗影响问候的不同表达形式。 

一、中英问候语差异对比 

（一）分类及内容差异 

1．祝愿式问候。这类问候表达的是说话人一种良好祝愿，在中英两种语言中都有其表现形式。例如我们所熟悉的“您好”“新年好”、“merry christmas”等。但由于语言不同、文化习俗不同，不同语言中问候语也会有不同的表达形式。英文中有“good morning”（早上好） 适用于早上起床后至午饭间这段时间，在正式、非正式场合均可使用，但它与中文的“您早”并不对应，“您早”在中国多用于起床后至早饭前这一短暂时间，“早睡早起”是中国人的养生之道，行为准则之一，因此“您早”在汉语中还蕴含有赞扬之意，如上午10 点见人还说“您早”，则多有挪揄之意了。 

2．关心式问候。关心式问候一般体现说话人对对方身体或工作、生活等方面的关心。受文化差异的影响，关心式问候在不同语言中表达形式大不相同。我们常以中国普通老百姓日常问候语“吃了吗”、“去哪儿”、“忙不忙”为例，这是极为普通而又随便的问候语，问与答的双方都不把它当成正式的问题，纯打招呼而已。对外国人来说不是这样的，在英语中这两个问题都涉及个人的隐私，是不能这样发问的。 

3．交谈式问候。有时候人们打招呼是以对方正在干着的事情为话题，通过提问的方式来进行的，这类问候形式在汉语中非常普通。我们日常生活中耳熟能详的“出去啊?”，“上班去?”“散步啊?”，诸如此类的问候话非常的多，一天中我们不知道会说多少次、听到多少次这样的话。同样的问题在英语中则不宜发问，这跟语言发展的传统密切相关的，中国人人情味浓，较关注他人的生活或工作状况，而西方人多把生活或工作的某些情况视为个人隐私，他们的习俗是避开这类话题。　英语和汉语问候语内容上的差异说明这两种语言的人在礼貌语言策略选择上的差异。人们习惯上认为，英语民族的人比较矜持，除了非常要好的朋友，他们不喜欢相互表现得很亲昵。而且，对他们大多数人来说，“where are you going ?”或“ what are you doing?”这类听起来有干涉意味的话是不合适的，因此不能作为问候语接受。这一点也许可以说明为什么英语问候语内容具有中性特点，例如谈论天气或其他与个人没有直接关系的事物。另一方面，中国人一般高度重视社会关系，在相互问候的时候往往表现出对他人的关心。“你在忙什么?”这类询问用作问候语，英语民族的人听起来可能觉得奇怪，但在汉语中已经成为常规礼貌用语。 

（二）句子结构上的差异 

英语和汉语的问候语在句子结构上也有差别。例如，在问候过程中谈论天气时，说汉语的人往往使用“天气真好! ”和“天气真糟！”这类感叹句来表达对好天气的喜悦和对坏天气的诅咒，而说英语的人则比较喜欢用“fine day，isn’tit?”这类附加问句。说汉语的人在问候的时候经常使用重复来增强亲切感，例如“ 你好你好”和“ 再见再见”，而说英语的人则喜欢在问候语中使用缓冲词语来减轻言外之力，例如“ can i help you at all ?” 

（三）人称代词使用上的差异 

英语和汉语问候语的差异也可见于人称代词的使用。首先，汉语第二人称代词有两种形式，即“ 你”和“您”，后者更为礼貌，而英语只有一种形式，即“you”。不过，在英语问候语中，人称代词比汉语用得广泛。试比较第二人称代词在这两种语言中的使用情况：