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Acknowledgements
英文摘要在科技论文中具有重要作用，根据EiCompendex数据库对英文摘要的要求，从时态、语态等方面提出了英文摘要的写作规则，列举了论文中存在的常见问题，并提出了一些建议。下面是学术参考网小编为您搜集整理的毕业论文致谢词英文，欢迎阅读！
Acknowledgements
MydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttoProfessoraaa，mysupervisor，forherconstantencouragementandguidance.Shehaswalkedmethroughallthestagesofthewritingofthisthesis.Withoutherconsistentandilluminatinginstruction，thisthesiscouldnothavereacheditspresentform.
Second，IwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetoProfessoraaa，wholedmeintotheworldoftranslation.IamalsogreatlyindebtedtotheprofessorsandteachersattheDepartmentofEnglish：Professordddd，Professorssss，whohaveinstructedandhelpedmealotinthepasttwoyears.
Lastmythankswouldgotomybelovedfamilyfo
1.0 前言
近15年，体裁（genre）和体裁分析（genre analysis）成为第一语言和第二语言教学领域里的热门话题（Hyon 1996）。我国不少专家、学者都试图把这种理论应用在具有特定交际目的的篇章上，如分析农业英语论文摘要（易兴霞，2006），分析应用语言学领域学术文章的宏观和微观结构（杨瑞英，2006）英语专业毕业论文，分析商务促销类语篇（王宏俐, 郭继荣，2006）等。本文拟从Bhatia的英文促销信的体裁分析模式入手，分析主要交际目的为说服潜在客户购买商家所提供的产品或接受其服务的英文促销信的表现形式，图式结构和特殊信息，并通过分析语义的文化预设和搭配意义，加深对促销信的语言表面特征的认识。
2.0理论依据
2.1体裁
语言学中的体裁（genre）不同于文学中的体裁。Swales (1990: 45-58) 认为体裁是在特定社会文化背景下对人类交际事件进行分类的结果。所谓交际事件就是人们按照特定目的和特定程式运用语言在社会中办事的实例。新加坡的Bhatia (1993:13-16)在 Swales的体裁理论基础上做了进一步的完善, 认为:1)体裁是一种可辨认的交际事件;2)体裁不是一般的交际事件 ,而是一种内部结构特征鲜明,高度约定俗成的交际事件;3)在建构语篇时 ,必须遵循某种特定体裁所要求的惯例;4)尽管体裁有其惯例和制约性, 内行人仍可在体裁规定内传达个人意图和交际目的。因此交际目的往往决定应该使用哪种体裁，而体裁的常规性又维我们提供了可以遵循的体裁结构潜势。
2.2体裁分析
体裁分析是20 世纪90 年代由Swales (1990)和Bhatia (1993)发展起来的一种分析方法。他们认为任何体裁都是由一系列的语轮构成，语步(move)和步骤( step)是语篇分析的出发点。Swales的层次动向法（move approach）常用在具体的体裁分析中，即根据不同的交际目的，对某一语篇按照意义与功能划出层次，然后再根据层次来考察分析语言的表达形式。Swales 没有对语步和步骤提出明确的定义,但Nwogu (1997)认为语步是一个由一系列词汇,主题意义和修辞特征所标明的具有统一意义倾向的语篇片断，步骤是实现语步的可供选择的修辞策略，一个语步可以由一个或多个步骤来实现。例如英语专业毕业论文，Bhatia (1993:62)根据体裁“ 语步 (moves) 和步骤( steps)”分析理论，将推销体裁概括成七个 “语步” (move) :1. Establishing credentials (确立资格证明) ; 2. Introducing the offer (介绍推销内容)：⑴offering the product orservice (介绍产品或服务) ,⑵ Essential detailing of the offer (介绍推销内容的重要细节) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推销内容的价值) ; 3. Offering incentives (激励购买) ; 4.Enclosing documents (附寄文件) ; 5. Soliciting response(请求回复) ; 6. Using pressure tactics (采用压力策略) ; 7. Ending politely (礼貌收尾)。在以上七个“语步” 中 ,第二语步 Introducing the offer 又是由三个步骤(step)组成的。
体裁分析模式为语篇研究提供了新的考察视角与方式。使用体裁和体裁分析理论对某个特定语篇进行分析，是对语篇宏观结构和微观结构分析的有机结合，既注重语篇结构的宏观结构和认知结构，也注重特定的体裁结构在词汇和语法层面的特定表现。
3.0体裁分析在英文促销信中的应用
3.1促销信的体裁界定
促销信是商务英语中常见的一种语篇，它是以书信的格式由促销人员向顾客传递商品或服务的存在及其性能、特征等信息，帮助顾客认识商品或服务所带来的利益，从而达到引起顾客的注意和兴趣、唤起需求、采取购买行为的目的。因此它的本质是销售者和消费者之间的信息沟通，主要交际目的就是通过向消费者的宣传、诱导和提示，促进消费者产生购买动机，影响消费者的购买行为，实现产品由生产领域向消费领域的转移。这样的交际目的决定收信人和写信人通常为并不熟悉的双方，因此语言上谦虚有礼、简洁明晰是必不可少的。
3.2 促销信的内在宏观结构
一封成功的促销信在内在结构上 ,基本遵循Bhatia 的七个 “语步”的模式 ,通过吸引客户的注意、向客户详细介绍所推销的产品或服务并索求回复等语篇片断来实现说服潜在客户购买所推销产品或服务的交际目的。下面我们从Bhatia的英文促销信的体裁分析模式入手英语专业毕业论文，来具体讨论促销信的层次动向。。
Dear customer,
⑴Theunion bakers would like to announce a great offer this Valentine day. Every two kg cakeyou buy you get raffle ticket which allows you to enter into a draw which willgive you a chance to win a dinner for two at a three star hotel. You can have awonderful dinner with your loved one on the eve of Valentine’s Day.
⑵ Thebakers will arrange for the pickup and drop to the venue and you can enjoy thedinner along with the dance party at the three star hotels.
⑶Don’tyou think it will be fun to take your girlfriend or boyfriend out for dinner ona valentine’s day and make the day a special one? Imagine all that fun you havewith your loved one with tasty cuisine and exciting and thrilling dance party.To top it all you can meet famous singer and dancer who is the guest of honorthat day.
⑷Visitany of our outlets to get more information. Hurry and buy a wonderful tastycake for your loved one.
⑸Sincethe offer is valid till (time how long).please act now.
⑹Sincerely,
这封促销信由五段组成，第一段的第一句是第一个语步: Establishing credentials (确立资格证明),通过提及在情人节要提供的一项服务来吸引顾客的注意力；第一段的第二句到第三段是第二个语步：Introducing the offer (介绍推销内容)。第二个语步由三个步骤组成：⑴offering the product or service (介绍产品或服务) ,⑵ Essentialdetailing of the offer (介绍推销内容的重要细节) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推销内容的价值) 。第一段的第二句是第一个步骤，主要介绍了即将推出的服务——每买两公斤蛋糕就能抽签，就有机会赢得在三星级宾馆的两人晚宴；第一段的第三句和第二段是第二个步骤，详细介绍推销服务的细节——情人节前夕在三星级宾馆和挚爱共进晚餐、共舞；第三段是第三个步骤，主要指出推销服务的精神价值——使情人节过得特别，并能遇到明星。第二个语步是促销信最为重要的部分，决定能否帮助顾客认识商品或服务所带来的利益，从而达到引起顾客的注意和兴趣、唤起需求、最终采取购买行为的目的。第四段是第三、四个语步：Offering incentives (激励购买)和Soliciting response(请求回复)。第四段第一句是请求顾客做出回复——到销售点寻求更多信息；第二句是鼓励有购买倾向的顾客下定决心。第五段是第五个语步：Using pressure tactics (采用压力策略)，Sincerely和签名是第六个语步：Ending politely (礼貌收尾)，作为传统信件独特的结尾方式，这一语步在促销信中也很常见。
与Bhatia的七个语步模式略有不同的是：这封促销信并没有Enclosing documents (附寄文件)这一语步；而且Offeringincentives (激励购 买)和Soliciting response(请求回复)的顺序也有所不同。王宏俐, 郭继荣(2006)认为，在语篇构建中常使用的语步是核心语步英语专业毕业论文，不太出现的辅语步是外围语步，在促销信中，第一、二、四语步是核心语步，由于Enclosing documents (附寄文件)这一语步是外围语步，销售者可根据情况决定是否使用；至于语步顺序，尽管促销信是专门用途英语里的一种，有其惯例和制约性，但我们仍可在体裁规定内传达个人意图和交际目的。
3.3 促销信的文化预设和搭配意义
这实际是一封是以西方文化为背景的抽奖促销信。促销信的最主要部分——第二语步也是以这个文化预设为先决条件的。销售者想要促销的商品是蛋糕，但在促销信里，抽奖有可能赢得情人节的晚餐却是描述的重点，这主要是商家抓住了顾客消费过程中的侥幸获大利心理——以抽奖赢得与挚爱在情人节共进免费晚餐的机会，设置中奖机会，利用抽奖的形式英语专业毕业论文，来吸引消费者购买商品蛋糕。令人心动的抽奖活动成功地把顾客的注意力指向拉到了本应大力宣传的产品——蛋糕上面。如果收信人不了解这个文化预设，就不容易达到促销信的交际目的。
Leech（1981:17）认为：搭配意义是指一个词与另一个词连用搭配时使得该词的意义随语境而发生的变化。因此促销信在词的搭配上非常注意。促销信使用的形容词大多是描述性和评价性的，多为褒义词，例如：great, wonderful, special, tasty, exciting, thrilling, famous,wonderful, 这些形容词为收信人勾勒出一幅浪漫、激情、美味的晚餐情景。尽管这是一封书信，但口语词汇多余书面语词汇，浅显易懂、简洁明晰。销售者为了推销商品或者服务，常常直接使用反问疑问句和祈使句，增强引导功能，说服或敦促收信人采取购买行动。
3.4 总结
体裁分析超越了对语篇语言特征的简单描述,力求解释语篇的理据, 探讨语篇结构背后的社会文化因素和心理认知因素, 揭示实现交际背景的特殊方式和语篇结构的规范性。促销信具是专门用途英语的一种，把促销信这一体裁语篇看作是一个有规律的有结构的层次动向的组合的思想, 有助于我们更好地理解这种信函体裁，写出目的明确、结构清晰、用词准确的促销信。
参考文献：
1.Hyon, Sunny. Genre in Three Traditions:Implications for ESL [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 30/ 4 :693-722, 1996.
2.易兴霞.体裁分析与农业英语论文摘要[J]. 西安外国语学院学报，2006(9):28-31.
3.杨瑞英.体裁分析的应用：应用语言学学术文章结构分析[J]. 外语与外语教学，2006(10):29-34.
4.王宏俐,郭继荣.体裁分析与商务促销类语篇[J]. 外语教学，2006(7): 32-37.
5.Swales, J. M. Genre Analysis: English inAcademic and Research Settings [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
6.Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Usein Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993.
7.Nwogu, K. N. The Medical Research Paper: Structureand Function [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 199 16 (2): 119-138.
2.1The history of British English 3
2.2 The history of American English 4
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English 6
3.1 Lexical differences 6
3.1.1The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms 7
3.1.2 Differences in verb 7
3.1.2.1 Differences in the inflectional endings of verbs 7
3.1.2.2Different use of present perfect tenses 8
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs 8
3.1.2.4 Different use of "have" 9
3.1.3 Different use of function words 9
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb 9
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb 10
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles 11
3.2 Syntactical differences 12
3.2.1 Differences in compound object 12
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements 13
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood 13
4. The differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English 14
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English 17
6. Conclusion 17
Acknowledgements 19
References 19
1．Introduction
There is one play in the famous American TV series Friends: Ross will go to England to marry Emily, suddenly Rachel decides to show his love to Ross and goes to England either, so his friend Phoebe makes a call to tell the news to Ross and Emily, Emily’s housekeeper answers the call. The dialogue as follows:
Housekeeper: The Waltham Residence.
Phoebe: Oh...yes…is this…umm…Emily’s Parents’ house?
Housekeeper: This is the housekeeper speaking. And by the way, young lady, that is not how one addresses oneself on the telephone. First one identifies oneself and then asks for the person with whom one wishes to speak.
Phoebe: (In a British accent)This is Phoebe Buffay. I was wondering, please, if-if it’s not too much trouble, please, umm，might I speak to Miss Emily Waltham, please?
Housekeeper: Miss Waltham is at the rehearsal dinner and it’s not polite to make fun of people. Goodbye.
Phoebe: No,no,no, I’ll be nice, I swear!!! Could you just give me the number for where they are?
Housekeeper: I’m afraid, I’m not at liberty to divulge that information.
Phoebe: Ok, somebody is on their way to ruin wedding okay. And I have to warn somebody, alright. So if you don’t give me that number then I’m going to come over there and kick your snooty ass all the way to New Glocken...shire.
Housekeeper: Hangs up[1]
We can see from the above dialogue that British English is more serious and formal than American English. The American speaks at will while the Englishmen speak gently. As we all know the two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. There seems to be little differences between the two varieties but the influences are very different. On some occasion we may have some mistakes in communication, in order to help the English speakers and learners understand the two varieties better and to eliminate troubles that may prevent communication and English writing, so I will make analysis on the grammar differences between British English and American English.
2. British English and American English
Nowadays English has developed into a global language. The fact that such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there are many dialects and varieties. The two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. As a message carrier, English fully reflects the unique culture possessed by the British and American countries. Since in Dissertations on the English Language, Noah Webster pointed out “several circumstances render a feature separation of the American tongue from the English necessary and unavoidable.”
2.1 The History of British English
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.
Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary. It mainly divided into four periods.
（1）Proto-English （the 5th century AD）[2]
The languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.
（2）Old English（AD 450—1100）[2]
The invaders' Germanic language replaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. （form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic）The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings （is one of the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century.）who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.
（3）Middle English（AD 1066-1470）[2]
For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separated from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.
（4）Modern English（1500 up to the present）[2]
Modern English can be divided into two parts: early modern english(1500-1800)and late modern English. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.
English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.
In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significan t English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.
2.2 The history of American English
During the 17th century, or more precisely on May 14, 1607, the first English settlers landed in Virginia. This was a group of 104 London entrepreneurs and they established the first English colony in Jamestown. Later on, in 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers, settlers from England, landed in Massachusetts, and also brought the English language over the Atlantic Ocean to America and another variety of English was born, American English. This variety is the largest of all the English varieties, since as many as 70% of the native English speakers live in the US. American English has preserved a number of words and features from the English spoken in England at the time of the settlement, which have now been changed in British English.
The history of American English can be divided into the colonial (1607-1776), the national (1776-1898), and the international (1898-present) periods. During nearly four hundred years of use in North America, the English language changed in small ways in pronunciation and grammar but extensively in vocabulary and in the attitude of its speakers. English settlements along the Atlantic Coast during the seventeenth century provided the foundation for English as a permanent language in the New World. But the English of the American colonies was bound to become distinct from that of the motherland. When people do not talk with one another, they begin to talk differently. The Atlantic Ocean served as an effective barrier to oral communication between the colonists and those who stayed in England, ensuring that their speech would evolve in different directions.[3]
Americans also came cheek-to-jowl with "Amerindians" of several linguistic stocks, as well as French and Dutch speakers. They had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language. In the United States, there are also regional differences, and these are ultimately descendants of a mixture of accents spoken in the British Isles at the time of the settlement of America. Dialect boundaries in the US tend to run from east to west. The first immigrants settled along the Atlantic coast and they spread from east to west across the continent and took some dialect forms, for example words and pronunciation features, with them. The dialect areas in North America are much larger than they are in England, mainly because English has been spoken in England for about 1,500 years, but in America for only approximately 300 years. Because of America’s recent settlement, there has not been enough time for linguistic changes and this is why there are not so many dialect differences in this large country.
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English
English grammar is the set of rules within the English language itself. "An English grammar"(one kind of grammar system)is a specific study or analysis of these rules. In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes lexicology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. I mainly make analysis on the lexical and syntactical differences between British English and American English.
3.1 Lexical Differences
Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. Lexical differences mean relating to the words’ differences of a language.
3.1.1 The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms
Collective nouns such as “team, faculty, family, government” often take plural verb agreement and plural pronoun substitution in Britain English, but they nearly always take singular agreement and singular pronoun substitution in American English. There is a tendency in Britain English, to stress the individuality of the members, which is reflected in plural verb agreement and pronoun substitution, whereas American English Strongly tends to stress the unitary function of the group, which is reflected in singular verb and pronoun forms.[4] 6
Some examples:
Your team is doing well this year, isn’t it? (AmE)
Your team are doing well this year, aren’t they? (BrE)
3.1.2 Differences in Verb
In syntax, a verb is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object).
3.1.2.1 Differences in the Inflectional Endings of Verbs
The past tense and past participle of the verbs are different in BrE and AmE.
The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell, burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In BrE, the irregular and regular forms are current; in some cases (smelt, leapt) there is a strong tendency towards the irregular forms (especially by speakers using Received Pronunciation); in other cases (dreamed, leaned, learned) the regular forms are somewhat more common. In AmE, the irregular forms are never or rarely used (except for burnt and leapt).
Nonetheless, as with other usages considered nowadays to be typically British, the t endings are often found in older American texts. However, usage may vary when the past participles are actually adjectives, as in burnt toast.( Note that the two-syllable form learned ['lə:nid] usually written simply as learnt, is still used as an adjective to mean "educated", or to refer to academic institutions, in both BrE and AmE.)Finally, the past tense and past participle of dwell and kneel are more commonly dwelt and knelt on both sides of the Atlantic, although dwelled and kneeled are widely used in the US (but not in the UK).
In British English, the past tense of “get’’ is “got”, while American English usually use its past participle “gotten”.
For example,
A. John has got much better during the last week. (BrE)
B. John has gotten much better during the last week. (AmE)
According to the custom that British English usually uses “got” while American English “gotten”, we can quickly tell the nationality of the speaker. The former is British and the later is American. When Americans use “got”, they mean “own, possess and dominate”, such as the following two examples:
They’ve got no pride.
I’ve got plenty of material if I can just handle it.
3.1.2.2 Different use of present perfect tenses
Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the recent past(express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment) and with the words already, just, and yet. For example:
British English:[5]
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:[5]
I just had lunch or I've just had lunch.
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? Or did you finish your homework yet?
In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. In British English the present perfect is used to.
"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home."
"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." [6]
Recently, the American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster".
Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the pluperfect with the preterite. Also, US spoken usage sometimes, especially with the contracted forms, substitutes the conditional for the pluperfect (If I would have cooked the pie we could have had it for lunch), but this tends to be avoided in writing.[6]
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs
The following verbs show differences in transitivity between BrE and AmE.[6]
agree: transitive or intransitive in BrE, usually intransitive in AmE (agree a contract/agree to or on a contract). However, in formal AmE legal writing one often sees constructions like as may be agreed between the parties (rather than as may be agreed upon between the parties).
appeal(as a decision): usually intransitive in BrE (used with against) and transitive in AmE (appeal against the decision to the Court/appeal the decision to the Court).
cater("to provide food and service"): intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (to cater for a banquet/to cater a banquet).
claim: sometimes intransitive in BrE (used with for), strictly transitive in AmE.
protest: in the sense of "oppose", intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (The workers protested against the decision/The workers protested the decision). The intransitive protest against in AmE means, "to hold or participate in a demonstration against". The older sense "proclaim" is always transitive (protest one's innocence).
write: in BrE, the indirect object of this verb usually requires the preposition to, for example, I'll write to my MP or I'll write to her (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, for example, I'll write her a letter). In AmE, write can be used monotransitively (I'll write my congressman; I'll write him).
3.1.2.4 Different use of “have”.
British English usually uses “Have you any children?” or “Have you got any
children?” while Americans commonly express the same meaning with “Do you have any children?”Let us see some other examples.
How many brothers do you have? (AmE)
How many brothers have you? (BrE)
You don’t have much room here. (AmE)
You haven’t (got) much room here. (BrE)
3.1.3 Different use of function words
Function words (or grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only. Now I will compare the different use of function words in BrE and AE in detail as follows.
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb
Differences between British and American English in prepositions are shown in the following two aspects: (1) different use of prepositions in the construction of phrases; (2) when using phrases, one will use a preposition while the other will omit it.
(1)Let us first review the different use of prepositions.
Your daughter’s name stands first in the list. (BrE)
Your daughter’s name stands first on the list. (AmE)
These dresses are in a sale. (BrE)
These dresses are on sale. (AmE)
He will come here at a quarter to three. (BrE, AmE)
He will come here at a quarter before /of / till three. (AmE)
She lives just round the corner (BrE).[7]4
She lives just around the corner (AmE).
Similarly, “five past nine” can be expressed in American English by “five after nine” or “nine five”. In front of “weekend” and “Christmas”, British English uses “at” or “over”, while American English adopts “over” or “on”.
At the weekend / Christmas (BrE)
Over the weekend / Christmas (BrE, AmE)
On the weekend / Christmas (AmE)
(2) Omitting preposition[8]2
In British English, before “day”, “week” or “certain day”, preposition “on” shall be used, while it is not so in American English.
The new term begins on September 1. (BrE)
The new term begins September 1. (AmE)
I’ll see you on Monday. (BrE)
I’ll see you Monday. (AmE)
In American English, when “home” is used as an adverb, the preposition “at” is not needed. But, in British English, “at” is required before “home”. Hence, “at home” is used in British English.
Is he home? (AmE)
Is he at home? (BrE)
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. There are three types: Modal auxiliaries，have and go.
No matter in the frequency or the tendency of auxiliary verb, AmE differs from BrE. Their differences are stated as follows:.
(1)shall
Shall in BrE, is widely used in the fist person to raise questions, answer questions ,or to express future, while in AmE it is only used in the law file or informal style paper. In formal style paper, people usually use will or should. Such as:
Br.E:1)I shall tell you later.
Am.E:1)I will tell you later.
2)Shall I drink this now?
2)Should I drink this now?
(2)would[9]2
Would has two special usages in AmE, firstly it can show the usual action in the past. such as: When I was small, I would go there everyday.
However in BrE, the past tense or used to can express the past uaual action, therefore in BrE the above sentence should be changed into: When I was small, I went there everyday. Or When I was wmall, I used to go there everyday.
Secondly, would in AmE can express hypothesis in some informal language, quite like a kind of subjunctive mood, however in BrE not.
Try to compare:
Am.E:1)I wish I would have done it.
2)If I would have seen one, I would have bought it for you.
Br.E(it also the same with AmE):1)I wish I had done it.
2)If I had seen one, I would have bought it for you.
In Br.E, “would” and “will” can express suppose, while in Am.E the auxiliary verb “should” and “must” express supposition. Try to compare:
Br.E:1)That will be the postman at the door.
2)That would be zhongshan Road over there.
Am.E: 1)That must be (should be)the mailman at the door.
2)That should be(must be)Zhongshan Rood over there.
(3)used to
“Used to” in AmE is not seen as Modal auxiliary, but seen as notional word. To the opposite, in Br.E, used to is just seen as modal auxiliary, can offer or deny questions, also can be used as notional word but people use “do” to offer or deny questions. For example:
1)He used to go there.(notional verb)
Did he use to go there.(notional verb)
2)Used he to go there.(auxiliary verb)
He used not to go there.(auxiliary verb)
(4)ought to[9]6
“Ought to” is widely used in BrE to raise or deny questions, but in AmE use “should” to substitute for it, such as:
Br.E:1)Ought we to eat lunch?
Am.E:1)Should we eat lunch?
2)You ought not(oughtn’t) to have said that. 2)You shouldn’t have said that.
In AmE, ought to and used to are all used as notional verbs in the informal papers and such forms are said to be not standard forms. For example:
1)Did you ought to say that?
2)You didn’t ought to have said that.
(5) Different use of the indefinite pronoun “one”
In BrE we can use “one” to indicate the “one” of the former writing again while in AmE we usually use “he” or “his” to instead the “one” of the former writing. For instance:
One cannot succeed unless one works hard.(BrE)
One cannot succeed unless he works hard.(AmE)
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles[19]
(1)The omitting of articles
Most phrases of British English have articles, while those of American English do not have. The “the” in the standard expressions in British English “all the afternoon”, “all the winter”, “all the week”, “this time of the year”, ect. But the articles are usually omitted in American English. For example:
The swimming pools are open all summer.
I’ll be here all afternoon.
He has been gone all week.
British English will use articles in front of “sickness”, “river” and etc., while American English does not. For example,
British English expresses in the form of “the measles”, “the mumps”, “the flu”, “the Niagara Falls” and “the Black Creek”, while American English says “measles”, “mumps”, “flu”, “Niagara Falls” and “Black Creek”.
However, there are exceptions. In some expressions, British English does not use articles, while American English does.
BrE AmE
Go into hospital Go into the hospital
In hospital In the hospital
At university At the university
Sentences are as follows:
Next day, the rain began. (BrE)
The next day, the rain began. (AmE)
In future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (BrE)
In the future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (AmE)
(2) The position of articles
British English and American English are different from each other in the use of “a” or “an” with “half”. In British English, “a” follows “half”, for example, “half a dozen”, “half an hour”, “half a mile”, and “half a pound”. In American English, “a” is put in front of “half”, for example, “a half dozen”, “a half hour”, “a half mile” and “a half pound”.
3.2 Syntactical differences
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. I will explain the syntactic differences as follows.
3.2.1Differences in compound object[20]
The Verb“ -to do” usually used as compound object in British English, While past participle or past participle phrase mostly used as compound object in American English. Try to compare:
1)He also had ordered his luggage to be labeled for crew.(Bronte.) (BrE)
2)Last year an American hotel manager ordered his quests evacuated after an anonymous bomb threat.(AmE)
3)I have a roll that was in dead storage during the war which I ordered put back in running order. (O' Hara) (AmE)
The two compound structures (compound object with past participle and compound object with –to do) are both used in the BrE and AmE, while the AmE use compound object more frequent ly than BrE. However, there are some differences in the routine usage of Verb related to this phrase structure. The verb “to order” usually linked with the compound structure with past participle in AmE, but linked with the compound structure with “verb -to do” in BrE.
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements[11]
Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of AmE to use to go plus bare infinitive. Speakers of BrE would instead use to go and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say I'll go take a bath, BrE speakers would say I'll go and have a bath. (Both can also use the form to go to instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.) Similarly, to come plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of AmE, where speakers of BrE would instead use to come and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say come see what I bought, BrE speakers would say come and see what I've bought (notice the present perfect tense: a common British preference).
As to whether a preposition is used before days denoted by a single word, British people would say she resigned on Thursday, while Americans often say she resigned Thursday, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, in AmE the preposition is also absent when referring to months: I'll be here December (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).But, it will say “I’ll be here on December.” in BrE.
In the UK, from is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say the new museum will be open from Tuesday, Americans most likely say the new museum will be open starting Tuesday. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern from A to B, which are used in both BrE and AmE.) A variation or alternative of this is the most American will say “the play opens Tuesday” and the most British will say “the play opens on Tuesday”. American legislators and lawyers always use the preposition of between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British colleagues do not. We can see such differences by making comparison between Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Disability Discrimination Act 1995.
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood used more in AmE than in BrE, which is mainly used in the formal style paper.
In subjunctive mood, American English will rarely reserve traditional subjunctive words.
I suggest that meeting be postponed. (AmE)
I suggest that meeting should be postponed. (BrE)
I wish I had done it. (AmE)
I wish I would have done it. (BrE)
4. The grammatical differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English
Black English also called African American Vernacular English which is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English.There are four points in which black English differs from British English.
1)Negation
In addition, negatives are formed differently from standard American English:
Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. It can be used where Standard English would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't and hasn't, a trait which is not specific to AAVE. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the U.S., some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).[14] Ain't had its origins in common English, but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with Standard English, where a double negative is considered a positive (although this wasn't always so; see double negative). There is also "triple" or "multiple negation", as in the phrase I don't know nothing about no one no more, which would be "I don't know anything about anybody anymore" in Standard English.
In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (eg. Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothin' goin' on.)
While these are features that AAVE has in common with Creole languages,[15] Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.
Some of these characteristics, notably doubl e negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries such as the has in has been are also characteristic of general colloquial American English.
2)The omission of copula in black English
You crazy! ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: She is my sister.
Only the forms is and are (the latter of which, in any case, is often replaced by is) can be omitted. These forms cannot be omitted when they are pronounced with a stress (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in Standard English cannot show contraction (and vice-versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to (BrE) I don't know where he because in Standard English the corresponding reduction I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (Though I don't know where he at is possible.) Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[16]
3)Present-tense verbs uninflected for number/person
there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.[17]
4)The word it or is denoting the existence of something
This usage is equivalent to Standard English there in "there is", or "there are". It is also found in the English of the US South. Examples its a doughnut in the cabinet ("There's a doughnut in the cabinet") and It ain't no spoon ("There isn't a spoon", also "They ain't no spoon").[17]
5) Altered syntax in questions
Why they ain't growin'? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of standard English. Because of this, there is also no need for the auxiliary DO.[18]
To put it simply, we can summarize the grammatical differences between British and American daily English as follows[19]:
(1) Sometimes, British and American English use different grammatical forms to express the same meaning;
(2) Sometimes, the same grammatical form expresses different meanings in British and American English;
(3) In some structures, either British English or American English will use integrated grammatical form, while the other adopts the omitted form;
(4) Sometimes, American and British English use the same grammatical form to express the same concept and meaning.
However, one of them may have another expression form, while the other does not. We could only avoid misunderstanding by paying attention to those differences in our study.
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English
The English language changes as the rapid development of politics, economic, culture in Britain and American. After it goes through the three periods (old English, middle English and modern English),it also changes everyday, especially in the related ten years, the changes of English becomes more obvious. Although the English structure is not as obvious as the lexical development, it does not ignore. On the aspect of grammar, English experience the changes from the verb inflections of old English to use word in order to express meaning in the past 1500years, and English also become analytic language from synthetic language. Such experience makes English flexible, meanwhile it also broke the traditional grammar frame, the former disagreed rules transferred into acceptable English even native English. The speed on renewing lexical words is very fast.
On the whole, British English and American English fuse with each other, and they tend to be brief, clear and more flexible for use.
6．Conclusion
As the globalization and information world developed, more and more people from different countries use the same language―English to communicate and exchange ideas with each other. The above discussion about grammar difference between British English and American English is what I have found and concluded. Although there are many differences in detailed aspects in the use of daily British and American English, they are similar to each other in most of aspects. Therefore, they shall only be considered as different forms of the same language rather than two different languages. In addition, we cannot say which one is better or advanced. Any judgment or opinion that “British English is better or worse than American English” is biased. The purpose of this paper is to help English learners understand the two varieties better and eliminate some mistakes caused in communication or paper writing.
The differences between the British English and American English are caused by politics, economy, social life, culture, and geography. American English developed from British English, but it differs from British English. All in all, sinc e English is characterized by its huge vocabulary, great tolerance, and conciseness, it leaves little room for argument that English will be well on its way to be a diversified common language.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Mao Can、Gao YunPing and many others.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
[1] 周乐, 美式英语与英式英语比较与分析[J]. 湖南商学院外语系,2008.
[2] Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language
[3] blog.languagetranslation.com/public/item/118655
[4] 王振明和公丽艳，英式英语与美式英语的差异[J]. 山东教育学院学报,2002.
[5] esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a/dif_ambrit.htm
[6]en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences#Use_of_tenses
[7] 孟宪友，英语与美语的差别对比研究[J]. 广州大学外国语学院英语系,2002.
, Jour.of N.W. SCI-TECH Uni.of Agri.and Fore,2001.
, Journal of Shijiazhuang Teachers College,2001
, Journal of Wuhu Vocational Institute of Technology,2007
[11]Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences
, Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Sciences), 2007
[13]张振邦,新编语法教程[M].上海,上海教育出版社,1993
, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
[15] Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited", Language Variation and Change 4 (3): 311-357
[16] Geoff Pullum, "Why Ebonics Is No Joke" Lingua Franca transcript, 17 October 1998, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English#Negation
2.1 Ezra Pound 2
2.2 Imagism ………………………………………………………… …………...….. .4
3. Imagistic features of Pound's poetry 5
3.1 The use of Image 5
3.1.1 Image progress…..……………………………………………………………… ……6
3.1.2 Image superposition………………………………………………………………….. 8
3.1.3 Image juxtaposition………………………………………………………………...…9
3.2 Concise Language………………..………………….…………………………...…….10
3.3 Musical Rhythm ...……………………………………………………………………..11
4. Influence of Pound’s poetry 12
4.1 The impact on domestic literature ...…………… …………………………………… 13
4.2 The impact on foreign literature ...………….…………………………………………14
5. Conclusion 16
Acknowledgement. 17
Reference 18
1．Introduction
Imagism was a movement in the early 20th-century Anglo-American poetry that favored precision of imagery, and clear, sharp language. The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry. This was in contrast to their contemporaries, the Georgian poets, who were by and large content to work within that tradition. Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an American expatriate poet, critic and intellectual who was a major figure of the Modernist movement in the first half of the 20th century. He is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry.11
As the father of Modernism, Ezra Pound plays an important role in Poetry modernization process. Therefore, we can get a clear understanding of imagism poems by studying Pound’s poems and translation works. The thesis will focus on studying image to analysis Ezra Pound’s poems. According to Pound's Imagist poems and other predecessors’ studies of his works, this thesis will summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical concept from the view of reading, understanding and appreciating modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.
The first part summarizes Ezra Pound’s life and theoretical basis of Imagism. The second part, as analysis of Pound's poetry, departs into three parts—the use of image, concise language and musical rhythm. It introduces three kinds of combination of images, and uses Pound’s poems to explain the combination of images. The third part is about the influence of Pound poetry on domestic and foreign literature
2. Ezra Pound and Imagism
As the father of modernism which is the main stream of literature in the twentieth century, Ezra Pound definitely plays a predominant role in the evolution of modernist poetry. Its starting point is Imagism.
Ezra Pound’s Imagist theory is mainly based on the aesthetic theories proposed by W. B. Yeats, Ford Madox Ford and T. E. Hulme. Yeats is famous for a symbolist who emphasizes subjective conception and imaginative association，but this school tends to lapse into sentimentality; Ford is famous for an impressionist who emphasizes objective writing with clarity and precision, but this school tends to lapse into the level of description. Pound absorbs the strengths of Yeat’s subjectivity and Ford’s objectivity and finds a way to make natural objects convey subjective emotion by virtue of association of the mind.
2.1 Ezra Pound
Ezra Pound(1885一1972)was born in Hally, Idaho, in October, 1885.Then he attended Hamilton College and the University of Pennsylvania，where he majored in romance Philology while reading through a large Portion of classical and European literature. Dissatisfied with the genteel tradition and Popular romanticism dominating the American literary tastes，Pound moved to Europe in1908一first to London，then to Paris，and finally to Rapallo, Italy. In 1909，Pound met W. B. Yeats and Ford Madox Ford. He was greatly influenced by these two and tried to combine Yeat’s symbolism with Ford’s impressionism. About the same period of time, Pound got in touch with T. E. Hulme and became interested in his Poetic theory.
All these ideas became the theoretical basis of the well-known Imagist and Vortieist Movement. Later，inspired by American sinologist Ernest Fenollosa’s theory on the Chinese writing characters，Pound proposed the Ideogramic Method which was based on the chief principles of the Imagist and Vorticist Movement. As the advocate and leader of the movement Pound exerted a great influence on the Imagist poetry writers. Pound also attempted to combine poetry with music, painting and scu1pture.Vortieism was such a typical example.
Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. In the early teens of the twentieth century, he opened a seminal exchange of work and ideas between British and American writers, and was famous for the generosity with which he advanced the work of such major contemporaries as W. B. Yeats, Robert Frost, William Carlos Williams, Marianne Moore, H. D., James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway and especially T. S. Eliot. Pound also had a profound influence on Irish writers W. B. Yeats and James Joyce.
Pound is not only a poet, but also a translator, essayist and literary critic. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his promulgation of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry which are stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.” His later work, for nearly fifty years, focused on the encyclopedic epic poem he entitled The Cantos, which was regarded as poetic masterpiece of the twentieth century. He is really an original and creative poet in the twentieth century, a literary giant who plays a prominent role in the development of modernist poetry.
2.2 Imagism
Imagism was a poetic movement which flourished in London between 1910 and 1917 and had an enduring and pervasive influence on English-language poetry in the twentieth century.
The Imagists published four annual anthologies from 1914 to 1917, with a final anthology in 1930. They were led by Ezra Pound who first called them “Les Imagists”, choosing a French term to associate the group with the various French avant-garde movements which became the Roger Fry’s influential Post-Impressionist exhibition in 1910. The group included Hilda Doolittle, John Gould Fletcher, Amy Lowell, Richard Aldington, and, marginally, D. H. Lawrence, but they had only a loose and shifting affiliation and it was mainly Pound’s talents as a promoter and critic that gave a semblance of unity.
Pound’s favored spelling of Imagists was a gesture of homage to the first school of modern poets, the symbolists, whose best-known members were Baudelaire, Mallarme, Verlaine, and Rimbaud, but Pound criticized the French Symbolists as often as he praised them. The first principle of Imagism was “Direct treatment of the thing” [3]72, clearly in contrast to Mallarme’s famous dictum that to name a thing was to take away half the pleasure and whereas Verlaine in his “Art of Poetry” advised an “indefinite music”. Pound spoke for an “absolute rhythm”, a rhythm that is in poetry which corresponds exactly to the emotion or shade of emotion to be expressed.
Nonetheless, Pound’s ascorbic but well-judged criticism of his contemporaries, his accurate sense of what was good in verse, and his own aphoristic brilliance, gave this small movement (which was not really even a movement outside of Pound’s rhetoric) a formative role in defining the twentieth-century poet as someone who was in the intellectual avant-garde, purifying the language of the tribe, spurning flaccid and self-important and merely derived patterns of language use, and generally breaking with the idea of fixed metrical rules. Many of these principles were clearly articulated in the essay “Imagism” in Poetry (March 1913) which was offered as an interview-cum- report by F. S. Flint but shows the hand of Pound throughout. According to Flint, the three principles of Imagism were:
“1. Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome. ” [4]12
In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist” by Pound in the same issue offers a definition of the Image as “that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time” [5]54, the key point being the compression of intellectual and emotional experience into an instant. He goes on to offer his own set of “Don’ts”:
“Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.
Don’t use such an expression as “dim land of peace”. It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.
Go in fear of abstractions. Don’t retell in mediocre verse what has already been done in good prose. Don’t think any intelligent person is going to be deceived when you try to shirk all the difficulties of the unspeakably cliff cult art of good prose by chopping your composition into line. ” [6]31
3. Imagistic Features of Pound's Poetry
Imagist poetry has three distinctive artistic characteristics. First, the Imagist poems request to convey the complex imagery directly, use sculpture and painting in the performance of imagery. It objects to musical and mystery object to lyrics. It advances the “Do not say” and “Do not you narrative” [6]9, only to show without comment. Second, the Imagist poems use concise language, no adjectives and qualifier, no decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. Third, the Imagist poetry Images focus on the intrinsic rhythm of imagery combination, blend the imagery and the contained idea.
3.1 The use of Image
The word “Image” used in the field of literature is derived from the theory of Chinese poetry. It is an important linguistic terms which have been widely used in Chinese poetry. Therefore, when people refer to “image” in literature, it also refers to “image” poetry. Poetry image is the basic constituent element of poetry. It is the soul and essence features of poetry, and it plays a vital role in poetry.
Pound’s work as poet, critic，editor，and promoter of the new style was crucial to its initial period，in the decade around the First World War，and what was most essential to his conception of what was truly modern was a single word: Image. Pound’s best poems were assured achievement in the Imagist Movement when literature in English became recognizably modern. The modern revolution in literary style came from a main impulse一focus on the image.
Aesthetic theorist and imagist poet T. E. Hulme must be credited with the initial emphasis on the image，for he first formulated the doctrine that “Images in verse are not mere decoration, but the very essence of an intuitive language.”2 It was also Pound who showed in practice how far this definition could be carried into the making of short and then longer poems. Pound emphasized the concentration of intellectual and emotional content possible in a poetic image, though it mirrored only a brief moment of experience. He took the image to be the poet’s “primary pigment” and stressed the hardness, or concreteness, of sensory language, telling poets to “Go in fear of abstractions”. Besides concreteness, Pound stressed exactness of diction, the mot just of Flaubert, and clarity, and “As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome”. Thus, along with the image emerged free verse, newly understood as an appropriate organic rhythm, suited to the mood of the individual poem.
In short, Pound’s Imagism was intended to carry symbolism forward towards a greater poetic realism, keeping the poet’s vision always in touch with the world of his senses, holding firmly to the principle that truth should be visible in things, rather than in visible beyond them.
As we all know ancient Chinese poetry and Japanese haiku had an important influence on Pound, especially the ancient Chinese poetry. Pound didn’t just pay attention to the ‘exotic surface’ of the Chinese language but its linguistic nature and the abstract feelings that lie behind it. He not only translated lots of Chinese poems but also learned the useful and particular writing techniques. It can be seen clearly the imitation of the style of Chinese poetry from Pound’ poems.
In the following text I will focus on three types of combination of image--image progress, image superposition and image juxtaposition. These three modes of combination of image are very typical East or Chinese-style image, which is characterized by only using nouns rather than verbs. This image processing techniques in ancient poetry in China is nothing unusual or surprising. And they are also wildly used in Pound’s poetry and become his representative features.
3.1.1 Image Progress
Image progress is a combination of images which structured in accordance with the objective rule. It is a common writing technique used by ancient Chinese poets. For example, the famous Chinese poetry《敕勒歌》：
“敕勒川，阴山下，天似穹庐，笼盖四野。
天苍苍、野茫茫，风吹草低见牛羊。”
In this poem, the author wrote from the mountains to near grass, from the sky to earth. He ranged the images under the rule of direction--from far to near. Therefore the author could make the meaning of this poem very clear.
Ezra Pound successfully used Image progress writing technique in his poems. Take Pound’s poem “Salutation” for example:
O generation of the thoroughly smug
and thoroughly uncomfortable,
I have seen fishermen picnicking in the sun,
I have seen them with untidy families,
I have seen their smiles full of teeth
and heard ungainly laughter.
And I am happier than you are,
And they were happier than I am;
And the fish swim in the lake
and do not even own clothing.
-----by Ezra Pound “Salutation”
In this poem, Pound first wrote the happy “fishermen”. They eat in the wild, sleep on the ground, with the untidy families, but they laugh to their hearts’ contact. Then he compared “I” with “you”, finding that “I am happier than you”. He compared the “fishermen” with “I”, finding that “they were happier than I am”. At last he described the free “fish”, it swims freely in the lake and even wears nothing. Pound wrote four aspects: the “fishermen”, “I”, “you” and the “fish”. He made a structured comparison of each of the four aspects to challenge those self-appointed writers, and pointed out that the modern poets’ mind should be free roaming like the fish in the water. They should get rid of the old stereotypes of poetry and create poems freely.
Ezra Pound addresses the old-time question of happiness in privileged and underprivileged classes. The “generation of thoroughly smug” refers to middle and upper classes of society who, by conventional means, are uptight, dull, and “smug”, and in Pound's definition are “thoroughly uncomfortable”, with life. Pound parallels the “thoroughly smug” with the “fishermen”. The poem is about perseverance. “Fishermen” are poor, often uneducated, country folk. Pound parallels “fishermen” with struggling poets; both sects trying to survive by their individual means.
3.1.2 Image superposition
Image superposition is to superimpose images with the same meaning, and uses modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. Ezra Pound widely used this writing technique. The example is the poem “A Girl” which Pound wrote for his early lover:
The tree has entered my hands,
The sap has ascended my arms,
The tree has grown in my breast -
Downward,
The branches grow out of me, like arms.
Tree you are,
Moss you are,
You are violets with wind above them.
A child - so high - you are,
And all this is folly to the world.
------by Ezra Pound “A Girl”
In this poem, Pound first uses the image “tree” to superimpose and modify “I”, and then uses the image “moss” and “violet” to superposition and modify “tree”. It is clear that the image of the “tree” is a symbol of love and young girl. Pound first described the close relationship between “tree” and “I”. Then he added three images –”moss”, “violet” and “child” to praise the beauty of young girl. The girl is as young and beautiful as violet and moss. And she is also like green trees which full of life. All of these things moisten “my” growth of life, even though they are ungrounded yawp in most people’s eyes. In this superimposed image, we can find that the beauty of the young girl likes violet, and the vital force likes the tree and mo ss.
We can see that those words or images have similar meaning, and their meanings have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound used modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. So this poem uses typical image superposition.
3.1.3 Image juxtaposition
Image juxtaposition is quite similar to Image superposition, but actually they are different. Image juxtaposition is to appose two visible images together which from different time and space, to inspire and arouse the feelings of others. Hume said: “The imagery shows that the combination of the two visible images can be called a visual chord. Their combination gives people an image which is different from either of the two images.” The emotional feeling aroused by juxtaposition of different images has gone beyond the meanings of a particular image, but with an entirely new feel.
Pound said, “Image juxtaposition” can not allow any contact, whether it is an analogy or a synonym. The purpose of this technique is to “cut the lock of association of ideas”, so that the author can make the interaction relationship between images. The reader must take the initiative to use their imagination to explore the relationship between the two. Pound has always been emphasized on “Objective Present”. It is one of the effects of image juxtaposition, which means let the readers to understand the experience in poetry on their own, realize the “Similarity” between images, and get a sudden, new, near-epiphany of understanding.
Juxtaposition is like the Montage practice in the field of poetry. It is also the core writing technique used in Pound’s great work “The Cantos”.
Montage practice is a cinematic technique wildly used in modern film industry. It is a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie. It composes pictures by juxtaposing or superimposing many pictures or designs. So we can regard it as the art or process of making such a single pictorial composition.
The Cantos by Ezra Pound is a long, incomplete poem in 120 sections, each of which is a canto. Most of it was written between 1915 and 1962, although much of the early work was abandoned and the early cantos, as finally published, date from 1922 onwards. It is a book-length work, widely considered to present formidable difficulties to the reader. Strong claims have been made for it as the most significant work of modernist poetry of the twentieth century. As in Pound's prose writing, the themes of economics, governance, and culture are integral to its content.
The most striking feature of the text, to a casual browser, is the inclusion of Chinese characters as well as quotations in European languages other than English. Here I cite a few lines of chapter forty-ninth of poem “Cantos” as follows:
Rain; empty river; a voyage,
Fire from frozen cloud, heavy rain in the twilight
Under the cabin roof was one lantern.
The reeds are heavy; bent;
and the bamboos speak as if weeping.
-----by Ezra Pound “Cantos”
In this poem, Pound used the melodic appearance of images to achieve an effect that common texts were not readily to gain. When we are reading these few lines, there will be subconscious images come into our mind, just as the words showed. The images change from “rain” to “empty river”, from “frozen cloud” to “heavy rain, from “the cabin roof” to “one lantern”. It is just like a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie.
We can find that those words or images have different meaning, from different time and space, but they have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound put those visible images together and achieved an admirable effect to inspire and arouse our feelings. This poem gets a responsive chord in the hearts of its readers.These melodic appearances of images are achieved by juxtaposing or superimposing different images. In other word, this effect is achieved by image juxtaposition or Montage practice.
3.2 Concise Language
Imagist poetry is famous for using concise language, without adjectives, qualifier, decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. In the three principles of Imagism made by F. S. Flint, the second principle is “To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.” In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist”, Ezra Pound wrote three “Don’ts” as the principle of image poetry. The first “Don’t” is “Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.”
Pound strictly obeys these principles. Here we take the landmark work of Pound's Imagist Poetry “In a Station of the Metro” for example:
The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.
-----by Ezra Pound “In a Station of the Metro”
This poem was first published in 1913 and is considered one of the leading poems of the Imagist tradition. Written in a Japanese haiku style, Pound’s process of deletion from thirty lines to only fourteen words typifies Imagism’s focus on economy of language, precision of imagery and experimenting with non-traditional verse forms. The poem is Pound’s written equivalent for the moment of revelation and intense emotion he felt at the Metro at La Concorde, Paris. Pound explains in his article value.
The poem is essentially a set of images that have unexpected likeness and convey the rare emotion that Pound was experiencing at that time. Arguably the heart of the poem is not the first line, nor the second, but the mental process that links the two together. “In a poem of this sort,” as Pound explained, “one is trying to record the precise instant when a thing outward and objective transforms itself, or darts into a thing inward and subjective.”[9]3 This darting takes place between the first and second lines. The pivotal semi-colon has stirred debate as to whether the first line is in fact subordinate to the second or both lines are of equal, independent importance.
Pound contrasts the factual, mundane image that he actually witnessed with a metaphor from nature and thus infuses this “apparition” with visual beauty. There is a quick transition from the statement of the first line to the second line’s vivid metaphor; this ‘super-position’ technique exemplifies the Japanese haiku style. The word “apparition” is considered crucial as it evokes a mystical and supernatural sense of imprecision which is then reinforced by the metaphor of the second line. The plosive word ‘Petals’ conjures ideas of delicate, feminine beauty which contrasts with the bleakness of the ‘wet, black bough’. What the poem signifies is questionable; many critics argue that it deliberately transcends traditional form and therefore its meaning is solely found in its technique as opposed to in its content. However when Pound had the inspiration to write this poem few of these considerations came into view. He simply wished to translate his perception of beauty in the midst of ugliness into a single, perfect image in written form.
3.3 Musical Rhythm
Ezra Pound has a strong musical rhythm in his works, which is mainly embodied in three aspects: firstly, he thinks poetry language should be musical and pays attention to the internal poetic rhythm; secondly, he successfully adopted the fugue melody of western music, and used it in his masterpiece Cantos; moreover, he uses the dapper image poems to load the richest content and emotion to reach the highest level of musical poetry -- quiet voice.
Rhythm is an important factor to form the musical aesthetics of poetry. It gives us pleasure and beauty, and it can unify the individual, coordinate difference, turn lethargy to concentrate. Therefore, the rhythm itself is very charming, and musical rhythm is usually considered to be the core of musical poetry. In the On imagism, Ezra Pound defined poetry that “poetry is the compounds or organization of musical words.”[10]6 In Pound’s view, the so-called music is just rhythm. A poem cannot be called as a poem if without rhythm. In the aspect of poetry, Pound has inherited the free verse of Whitman poems, and made a meaningful attempt. He found a new charming melody in the traditional pentameter poem, and combined the music and expressive force into free verse. The rhythm and sound changes with the emotion in poems, that is, to maintain the true feelings of the poems and gives its beautiful melody. When reading Pound's poetry, we will realize that the beauty of rhythm in his poetry not only exists in the rhythm itself, but more important is in the performance of content.
Pound also believes that poetry do not only need rhythm, but also include: (1) beautiful rhythm. A good poem has a residual sound in the listener's ear, which sounds like organ. (2) Rhythm should contain some surprising elements. That is to say the rhythm should be of innovation. (3) Rhythm should reflect a certain emotion; give reader a shock of soul.
In addition to the repeated experiments of the rhythm of poetry, Pound also innovated the structure of poetry. He changed the way of composing music into poetry skills, in order to further enhance the melody and artistic appeal of poetry. In the “Cantos”—the literary masterpiece which represent the highest achievements of Pound's poetry, Pound used “fugue” structure in the creation of many chapters. Fugue is a common music form in Western music, which includes “theme”, “response”, “counter-subject”, and with several “episodes”. Usually, fugue adopts “counterpoint” to arrange “theme& rdquo;, “response” and “counter-subject” into the music in turn, and achieve polyphonic structure. This structure can overcome the psychological feeling of dull monotonous.
4．Influence of Pound poetry
Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet who is most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his declare of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry-stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.”
Pound appreciated Chinese poetry very much and learned the use of image from it. What’s more, he summarized the key techniques and formed his own imagism theory. His imagism theory, poetry writing skills and translation of Chinese poems not only influenced innumerable British and American writers, but also affected the development of Chinese modern literature.
4.1 The impact on domestic literature
Ezra Pound’s achievements in poetry field or literature field were well recognized. Though he learned a lot of writing skills from Chinese poetry, he also had an important influence on the literature development in China, especially the development of image poetry. We can say the modern Chinese poetry is greatly influenced by Imagism.
Image is an important category with key significance in Chinese poem studying and also an important numeral factor in poetry creation. Poet’s creation inspiration and experience to the life are both condensed in image. Image is the special way to manifest itself for poetry to be distinguished from other literary styles. The ancient Chinese image poetry has a long history. It is featured by clarity, precision, economy of language and combination of images. The western image poem theory was partly derived from Chinese, but later it influenced modern Chinese Poetry.
The genesis stage of Chinese modern image poetry is in 1920s. The representative poets were Hu Shi, Wen Yiduo and Li Jinfa. Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. “The English and American poetry of image group showed multi-aspects influence on Hu Shi’s poetry point and his vernacular and New Poetry Movement.”[11]119
The whole exploration of poetry image art in1920s, looking the image art of ancient poetry as the control of modern image construction, experiences a process of modern decay and birth of new poem image, that is being intertwined with image tradition of ancient poetry (new vernacular poem in the early period), breaking away from traditional image system (represented by Guo Moruo), close examination of returning to tradition (new metrical poem group represented by Wen Yiduo) and rebel against tradition (represented by Li Jinfa).
The development period of Chinese image poetry is between 1930s and 1940s. It was the historical evolution process of modern image art from genesis，development to maturity and its regularity and phased characteristics. During this period, most school’s image poetry held the point of view with the core of dimness, harmonious theory and artistic conception. The Beijing school’s image poetry theories were including agreement theory, art and temperament and interest theory, revealing and hidden theory, inspiration theory and image connecting theory. The July school’s image theory explaining the poetry point on the center of Ai Qing’s concrete and abstract sensualist, image imagination theory and image and graphic theory and Hu Feng’s experience image theory. The Nine Leaves school’s poetry study is expanded from such aspects as poem quality theory, rational theory, artistic conception, structuralism theory, sinking theory and condensing theory etc. And it represents the basic maturity of modern image poetry theory. The representative poets were Dai Wangshu, He Qifang, Bain Zhilin, Fei Min, Ai Qing.
Up to the present, there are many Chinese scholars studying Ezra Pound’s poetry. Some of them are from the view of the relationship between Ezra Pound and Chinese poetry. Some others research from the perspective of translation to examine the translation skills the translation of Chinese poetry. The most of them use the perspective of traditional rhetorical method, and study images of poetry from perspective of the arts means and effects of literature. The study includes the role of poetic imagery, rhetorical skills, rhetorical effect and its artistic features and so on.
4.2 The impact on foreign literature
American poet, critic, and translator Ezra Pound was an extremely important influence in the shaping of 20th-century poetry. He was one of the most famous and controversial literary figures of the century. No other twentieth century literary figure engaged as much with China as Pound. T. S. Eliot described him as the “inventor of Chinese poetry”.
Though the movement of Imagism only lasted for a short period of time, it is the beginning of New Poetry Movement in the United States. Its experiment on using “image” and free verse poetry changed many American readers’ tastes, and affected the process of American modern poetry. Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s have served as a counterforce to the established traditions of the “American Sublime” and the Anglo-American formalism represented by T. S. Eliot and the New Criticism. Beach, Christopher wrote a complete book length critical study ABC of Influence: Ezra Pound and the Remaking of American Poetic Tradition. “ In this first full-length study of Pound's influence on American poetry after World War II, Beach argues that Pound's experimental mode created a new tradition of poetic writing in America. Often neglected by academic critics and excluded from the “canon” of American poetic writing, Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, and later members of this experimental tradition have maintained the sense of an American avant-garde in keeping with Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s.”[12]87
After the movement of Imagism, there is still a small number of poets, consciously or unconsciously adhered to some of the certain principles of Imagism, and expand the results of Imagism. William C. Williams’ performance is regarded as the most outstanding in this field. Under the guidance of Ezra Pound, he began his business on the road of studying Imagism. Then he combined the writing skills of Imagism with the subject matters and language style of the United States, and created a kind of “direct” Poetry. This kind of Poetry had a dramatic impact on the revolution of United States poetry during the 1950 to 1960.
T. S. Eliot and Irish writers W. B. Yeats were deepest influenced by Pound. T. S. Eliot was a poet, playwright and literary critic. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Among his most famous writings, the Waste Land has become a touchstone of modern literature, a poetic counterpart to a novel published in the same year, James Joyce's Ulysses. Pound made detailed editorial comments and significant cuts to the manuscript. W. B. Yeats was an Irish poet and dramatist and one of the foremost figures of 20th-century literature. Under Pound’s influence Yeats learned Pound's unauthorized alterations and got know of Chinese and Japanese poetry, which affected his later works.
5．Conclusion
The above discussion of Ezra Pound’s image poetry is by no means comprehensive but it can give us a clear point of view of Pound’s writing techniques and features. He successfully combined the features of Western poetry and Eastern poetry, and invited a new poetry theory. His way of combine images, use concise language and pay attention to rhythm are good skills which we can learn and use in poetry writing. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical ideals from the view of reading, understanding and appreciate modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks to my supervisor Han Xiaoya, without her patient guidance and strict supervision, this paper would not have been written. Her suggestions help me a lot in the writing of this thesis. And her enlightening ideas will greatly influence studies in my academic life.
I am also very grateful to my roommates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their valuable materials and suggestions on my writing of this thesis. Their kindness cannot be overstated.
I am further indebted to other teachers who have taught me and helped me in the past four years
In addition, any errors and inadequacies in this thesis are my sole responsibility.
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[10] 王贵明.中国古典诗歌美学与庞德现代主义诗学[J].北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)2004,(6).
二、英语专业毕业论文的改革实践
笔者所在学院明确地把培养应用型创新型人才作为目标，其人才培养模式注重实用和实践，注重能力和专长。庄智象在《关于国际化创新型外语人才培养的思考》［6］一文中指出:创新型外语人才应具备“良好的语言基本功、极强的专业知识结构、创新性的思维能力和分析解决问题的实际能力”。正常情况下，英语专业的毕业论文，既要考查学生对英语专业基础知识的掌握情况，也要考查其综合应用英语的能力。二者如何协调结合，是改进毕业论文工作的一个突破口。工科院校本科生毕业前既要完成毕业论文，又要完成毕业设计。前者注重专业知识和学术性，后者检验对知识的实践应用能力，即动手能力。这种强调理论与实践相结合的理念对英语专业毕业论文工作有很好的启示:是否也可以将英语专业的毕业论文由单一的论文模式改为一种集社会实践和论文于一体的毕业设计模式?本校英语系经过多方调研和考虑，最终提出从英语专业毕业论文形式入手进行改革，力求探索一种能有效地防止抄袭，且适应应用型创新型英语人才培养目标的毕业设计模式，具体情况如下:1．改传统的毕业论文为毕业作品制作长期以来，高校英语专业本科毕业论文(设计)都是沿用《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》的要求:“毕业论文一般用英语撰写，长度为3000～5000个单词，要求文字通顺、思路清晰、内容充实，有一定的独立见解。”［7］若仔细推敲这句话，“一般”二字暗示着高校也可根据实际情况进行其他形式的调整。为缓解日益严重的抄袭现象，从2012届学生开始，本系改革传统的毕业论文为毕业作品制作，具体指学生运用自己所学的英语知识制作出有英语配音及中英文字幕的视频节目。不同的学生按照自己的兴趣选择不同的主题，比如人文景观、产品推介、跨文化交际等。除了制作15～30分钟的专题视频外，学生还需完成一份不少于3000字的中文稿。学生将此文稿译为质量较高的英语，用于为视频英文配音，同时视频还配以中英文字幕。几名学生可在拍摄、配音和剪辑上互相协助，但每个学生最终要提交一个独立的作品和配套的中英文文稿。为了使学生掌握一定的视频拍摄及制作的基本技能和方法，本系还特别邀请了电视台的相关专家对学生进行32学时的培训，讲授视频的拍摄技巧和后期如何利用专业的EDIUS软件进行视频编辑及字幕制作。培训扩充了学生英语专业外的传媒知识，使学生获益匪浅。2．将毕业设计工作提前到学生就业前以往毕业论文从第七学期开始进行，第八学期进入到论文撰写最紧张的阶段。这时学生基本步入社会，或就业实习，或四处求职，无法集中精力进行写作。学生离开校园导致信息资料缺乏，引发网络抄袭，与指导老师的沟通也受到影响。为了改善这种状态，本系要求2012届的毕业生在第六学期即开始毕业设计的前期工作，包括毕业设计选题、开题报告撰写与修改以及开题报告的答辩。从暑假至第七学期中旬，学生完成毕业设计文字稿初稿，在教师指导下不断修改并最终形成定稿，继而完成拍摄工作及后期制作。第七学期中下旬完成毕业设计答辩，学生修改后提交最终版作品。将毕业设计提前，避免了学生毕业设计时段与找工季的冲突，学生有更充分的时间寻找自己最感兴趣的题目，将理论学习与实践操作相结合。这样不仅提高了毕业设计质量，还能增强学生学习的积极性，同时也便于教师在校内对学生进行面对面的指导。3．改革为毕业作品制作的优势其一，视频制作属于原创性的作品，学生自行选择感兴趣的题目，亲自为视频配音并出镜，有效地制止了抄袭现象的发生，且学生选题不再狭窄单一，时效性大大增强。很明显，改革后学生毕业设计的选题比改革前更丰富更新颖。其二，相比以往多届学生反复写过的没有新意的论文来说，新形式的毕业设计拥有更多的社会文化价值和实用价值。由于学生大都来自广东，其毕业设计多围绕广东本土的人文景观、企业及产品、文化传统等进行。如“岭南水乡———小洲村”、“主题公园的营销策略———欢乐谷成功之道”、“潮汕成人礼———出花园”、“西关文化的传承和保护———西关大屋的历史变迁”等许多作品富有浓郁的地方特色。学生亦可选取自己有求职意向的行业作为毕业设计的主题。最终每个毕业作品被单独刻录在光盘上，可作为学生求职简历的一部分，反映学生的实践能力，在严峻的就业形势下为成功应聘增添筹码。其三，学生开动脑筋自编自导视频作品，很大程度上培养了自己的创新意识、创新思维和创新精神。如“千年葵艺在新会”的制作者巧妙地把一位老奶奶摇着葵扇给孙女讲故事的场景引入到视频的主题———介绍广东新会的“葵艺”发展史。其四，将中文稿翻译成英文，在老师指导下不断修改至最佳的过程，使学生的写作翻译技能和语法、词汇等英文基本功有了显著的提升。其五，在为视频英文配音的过程中，学生反复练习英文稿的朗读，并在教师帮助下纠正错误发音，改善了语音语调，提高了口头表达能力。其六，通过在网上搜索毕业设计视频的相关素材，锻炼了学生搜集、筛选和运用资料的能力。其七，视频拍摄和编辑软件的学习以及后期的字幕制作等实践大大提高了学生的学习能力和动手能力。其八，拍摄前与公司厂家或景区等多方联系，锻炼了学生的社会交往沟通能力。视频由几名同学或亲友相互配合共同完成，培养了学生的团队合作能力。4．鼓励部分有需要的学生继续撰写毕业论文少数打算读研或出国深造的学生需要通过做毕业论文为今后的学习打下良好的学术基础，为此，改革不能搞“一刀切”，应鼓励部分学生撰写论文并配备优秀教师对其指导。
开题报告是作者将自己初步选定的题目之内容、思想等，以书面形式向毕业论文答辩委员会的导师和听众作一书面汇报和简要说明。
写开题报告目的：一是作者能将所选课题的内容框架、研究现状、选题意义、重难点和创新点、文化结构、主要引征材料及参考书目作一总体思路的勾划，作者对该选题的前因后果，来龙去脉进行有序的组合清理，为撰写毕业论文作好充分准备。二是作者能广泛听取他人的宝贵意见，并在此基础上重新理顺论文思路，使其结构更趋完整，内容更趋翔实。
开题报告的基本组成部分
1、毕业论文题目
论文题目用中英文撰写，汉语在前，英语在后。目的是限定毕业论文的大致范围和方向，即论题。应力求简明扼要，引人注目。一般不超过15—20字。必要时可使用副标题。
2、本选题的研究目的
以中学英语教学法方向为例，则须说明要解决英语教与学，理论与实践等方面的哪些问题，这些问题应是在教学实践中比较突出又难以解决的问题;或是前人从未解决的，并且能填补某一领域的空白的问题。
3、本选题在国内外同行业中的研究现状
国内外学者对该选题曾作过哪些方面的相关研究，本课题在国内外研究中处于何等地位?是属于未开拓的领域，还是在前人已经研究过的基础上作深层次的研究?国内外有哪些论文、论著涉及到本选题的内容?
4、研究本选题的动机及意义
提出本选题的根据是什么?为什么提出这个选题?本选题的研究有什么意义?从理论的角度看，本选题有哪些方面的突破，其价值取向是什么?本选题与相关领域之间的关系如何?对英语教学会起什么作用?从实践的角度看，本选题是否有助于英语教师和学生把握教与学的动向，使人们在英语教与学的过程中少走弯路，是否有利于提高英语教学质量?
5、本选题研究的主要观点、内容、重点和难点
本选题研究有哪几个重要观点，其特点是什么?研究的重点在哪几个方面?研究的难点在何处?怎样从理论与实践出发，对英语教学进行更深入的理论探讨?如何结合英语教学实际对改进英语教学作对策思考?本选题有哪几个新观点?是否填补了国内外同行业研究中的空白?
6、本选题的撰写框架
框架可用提纲形式表述，一般构成如下：
引言：提出问题、摆明观点。
论点：分析问题与阐明自己的观点。大致包括：问题的原因及危害性;解决问题的重要性和必要性;从理论上来论证问题的解决方法，并联系教学实际阐述解决问题的策略与做法。另外，利用实际数据作为论据，证明方法的有效性。
结论：通过对问题的分析论证，其结果如何?对人们在英语教与学中有何指导意义?有哪些方面需要继续研究的?它还有什么不足之处?
参考书目：参考书目一般是英文参考书在前，中文参考书在后，以字母拼音顺序排列。
7、研究基础
作者在选择该题之前作过哪些方面的学习、研究或写过什么文章?说明能如期完成毕业论文撰写的理由。
8、研究方法
常见的研究方法包括：观察、调查、描述、实验、实证、文献、个案研究、比较研究、经验总结、实践反思、测量、量化、行动研究、表列、图示、内容分析等方法。例如：实验的方法就是对英语教学班级进行实验对比;调查的方法就是通过调查表、询问、问答等形式寻找解决问题的方法。
一个课题根据具体情况可能需要一种或多种研究方法。
9、撰写步骤及阶段任务
包括：选题及开题报告初稿、正式开题报告及提纲、完成初稿、二稿、三稿、定稿等、何时论文答辩等。
开题报告中文范例
标题： 英语隐喻汉译
(On Translating English Metaphors into Chinese)
1) 本选题国内外研究现状
对隐喻的研究在国外已形成较为完整的体系，其中以Lakoff & Johnson (1987)的研究最具有代表性，而对于其汉译的研究却凤毛麟角。国内对于隐喻的研究主要受Lakoff & Johnson理论的影响，其中以胡壮麟、朱永生为主要代表。在隐喻翻译的研究方面，李国南(1990)，胡文仲(1994)对于英汉成语或谚语中的习用性比喻的喻体进行过比较，并探讨了其翻译的途经。在近期出版的刊物中有对队喻翻译研究方面的文章，其中以徐莉娜的《隐喻的翻译》为主要代表。但其研究的范围也只是局限于文学、修辞用语的隐喻翻译。
2)本选题的意义、重点、难点及创新点
意义：本选题突破了历来将隐喻的汉译局限在诗学、修辞学、文学等范畴。由于“翻译是跨语言、跨文化的交际活动”(陈宏薇：1996)，翻译对各民族之间文化的传播起着非常重要贡献的作用。我们对日常用语中隐喻的汉译研究应与英语语言文化背景的研究结合起来。
重点：本选题重在研究隐喻在英语日常用语中存在的普遍性、可译性及其翻译的方法。
难点：怎样从文化交际的角度对日常用语中的隐喻的汉译进行深入的理论探讨。
创新点：研究英语日常用语中的隐喻的汉译理论及其方法。
3)论文的结构及简要说明
1. 引言
2. 英语日常用语中隐喻存在的普遍性
2.1 隐喻的定义
2.2 关于隐喻研究的常用书语
2.3 英语日常用语中的隐喻
3. 英语日常用语中隐喻的特点
3.1 日常用语中隐喻的分类
3.1.1 习用语
3.1.2 新生隐喻
3.2 英语隐喻与汉语隐喻
3.3 英语日常用语中隐喻的可译性
4. 英语日常用语中的隐译汉译
4.1 翻译的标准
4.2 日常用语中隐喻汉译的难点
4.3 日常用语中隐语汉译的过程
4.4 日常用语中隐喻汉译的基本方法及原则
5. 日常用语中隐喻汉译的方法与技巧
5.1 直译法
5.2 意译法
5.3 转译法
5.4 直译和意译结合法
4) 参考书目
Brodkey, Linda. Review: The Language in Metaphors. ( College English Jan, v50 pp 89-94), 1988.
Jin Di & Eugene, A. Nida. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation Publishing Company, 1984.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live by Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Nida, Eugene A. & William, Reyburn. Meaning Across Cultures, Maryknoll of N.Y. Orbis Book, 1981.
…
陈宏薇 《新实用汉译英教程》，武汉：湖北教育出版社，1996。
陈文伯 《英语成语和汉语成语》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1980。
邓炎昌、刘润清《语言与文化》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1989。
张培基等《英汉翻译教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1983。
1、具有独立性和自含性
对于一些英文读者来说，英文摘要是他们唯一的信息源，所以英文摘要一定要强调完整性，也就是说它所提供的信息必须是完整的。
2、具有定量分析
撰写英文摘要的过程中应该注意避免笼统的、空洞的阐述，尽量用具体的语言和清晰地思路来论述，这样能给读者一个全面的信息呈现。
3、具有创新性
由于东西方文化差异，西方学者在阅读论文时会注重创新之处，所以中英文摘要不必强求一致，英文摘要需要有自己的特点和风格。
国际标准规定中“摘要”一词定义为原文内容准确、扼要的表达，而不加以解释和评论。各个高校对其也都有自己的相关规定，如新疆农业大学，一般要求英文摘要在200-250字符，单词语法正确，语言流畅、精炼。内容包括目的、方法、结果、結论等4个方面，着重反映论文中的新内容、新见解，但不得加入评论。
二、非英专本科毕业论文中文摘要英译中存在的问题
1、研究过程简述
为了了解本校非英专本科毕业论文英文摘要所存在的问题，笔者进行了两方面的研究。笔者对土管专业的62份问卷结果进行了数据分析，发现77%的非英专学生对英文摘要有强烈的需求；收集了土管专业的57份毕业论文英文摘要，进行详细分析、研究，发现70%的学生借助了网上一些软件翻译，其中有25%的人对译文进行了修改，仅有12%的学生基本了达到英文摘要的要求。
2、英文摘要存在的问题的分析
1）文章题目的翻译。中国学生受到汉语思维习惯的影响，在中文题目中会用到“研究”、“初探”等词，但是在撰写英文摘要中，这些词就可以不用译出。
例如：四平市耕地保护的问题及对策分析
原译：Analysis of Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City
改译：Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City
2）标点符号错误。学生常犯的错误：并列成分用分号隔开；书名号没有用斜体；中英文省略号的区别。
例如：农户耕地流转行为受农户文化程度、年龄、农户家庭劳动力资源状况影响。
译文：... is influenced by farmers’ degree of education，age，labor resource status.
3）用词不当。词性和近义词区别分辨不清常会导致用词不当的问题。
例如：但是由此产生的人地矛盾问题却日趋尖锐
原译；but the resulting contradiction between people and land ...
笔者认为“矛盾”一词，根据词义和用途，conflict更为贴切。
改译：but the resulting conflict between people and land...
4）搭配不当。英语单词的搭配纷乱复杂，许多学生的语法基础薄弱，经常会用错搭配导致不规范的表达。
例如：In Urumqi as an example ...
改译：Taking Urumqi as an example...
5）中式翻译
做翻译时，一个普遍问题就是中式思维翻译。如果只顾字面对应，不考虑文化差异，可能会造成简单句泛滥，句子衔接性差。
例如：大量的农业用地转为城市用地，给国家粮食安全问题和生态环境的保护造成了极大的压力。
原译：A great deal transformation of agricultural land into urban land， to the national food security problems and the protection of the ecological environment cause great pressure.
原译文完全是根据中文逐字逐句翻译的，且原文中的“问题”可不用译出。
改译：A great deal transformation ...brings great pressure to the national food security...
三、改进英文摘要质量的对策
英文摘要中存在的问题还有很多，以上几条只是笔者在实践过程中常见问题的简单总结。想要提高摘要质量，笔者认为需要从以下两个方面做出努力：
正确认识英文摘要的意义，了解英文摘要的写作特点和规范。撰写英文摘要时，先用中文完成结构完整、信息全面的摘要，再按照英文思维将其翻译下来。
掌握英文摘要的翻译技巧，加强自身翻译能力。多注重英文摘要的写作规范和行文特点，如用词、句法、时态、语态等。多积累英文摘要常用词、句型，多阅读英文文献资料。（作者单位：新疆农业大学外国语学院）
作者简介：汪南（1994～），新疆农业大学外国语学院英语134班学生。
参考文献
1、培养学生的英语阅读、写作能力及运用商务知识分析问题和解决问题的能力,达到学以致用的目的。
2、检查学生对所学专业理论知识和基本技能的掌握程度,并将论文成绩作为学生能否毕业的主要依据之一。
3、训练学生搜集运用资料的技能,同时培养学生理论联系实际,增强独立思考问题和解决问题的能力。
二、 论文写作要求:
1、以英文/汉语完成论文写作。
2、字数要求不低于3000个单词或字, 统一采用A4(210x297mm)页面复印纸单面打印.其中上边距2.8cm,下面距2.5cm,左边距2.5cm,右边距2.5cm,页眉1.6cm页脚1.5cm装订线0.5cm.字间距为标准,行间距为1.25倍行距.页眉内统一为:用5号宋体
3、论文的内容要与本专业所要求的知识和技能相结合,要求论述者阅读一定量的英文和中文资料,能够对所有的资料进行合理删减、组织和编辑,掌握论文撰写的结构与布局。要求语言流畅,层次清晰,论点明确,论据充分。具有以下特性:
1) 科学性:观点正确,论据充分可靠,结构合理,能反映出学生对本学科知识系统掌握的程度及其某一问题有较深理解很认识
2) 实用性:选题应该具有现实意义和学术价值,应该体现出分析问题解决问题的能力水平
3) 逻辑性:论证应该有力,层次应该分明,逻辑应该严密,结构应该完整合理
4) 技术性:应该具有收集整理运用材料的能力,语言表达应该清晰准确,格式应该规范
4、写作时间安排:
1月14日:学生与导师见面选题和开题
1月15日-3月25日学生写作,提交提纲,初稿,导师修改并将完成情况向系里汇报
3月31号前根据导师的修改意见完成第二稿交导师修改
4月7号前完成定稿并按照要求打印装订成册.打印3份,交系里2份
4月8号-4月13号准备答辩,原则上采用英语答辩
2007年4月14号论文答辩,原则上采用英语答辩
5:论文成绩评定:采用5级记分制,及优秀,良好,中等,及格和不及格五等.其中优秀没,良好等次的人数分别按不高于15%,20%的比例评定.终结成绩必须经指导老师学院毕业论文指导小组认定.
6:特别说明:
毕业论文写作是严肃的事情.严禁抄袭剽窃他人论文.一经发现此次论文成绩判为0分.
三、 论文选题方向:
1、商务英语教学改革的方向,途径,课程设置等
2、商务英语教学在新形势下的影响和意义;
3、我国贸易的现状及其发展方向
4、商务英文翻译技巧;
5、江西招商引资探讨及其对策
6.WTO保护期过后对我国的影响;
四、 论文设计与拟定的程序:1、指导教师的帮助下,根据本指导书提供的选题范围,从中选择论文方向,确定题目。(注:选择其他的题目,需与指导教师商议确定)
2、 搜寻与本人论文题目相关的资料,文献,形成论文大纲,注意论文结构安排的合理性。
3、 论文结构:包括题目,中英文摘要和关键词,目录和正文. 详见后面附件
附件1:
外语系英语专业(高职)毕业论文选题(商英专业)
1. 《商务英语课程设置的探讨》
2. 《跨文化因素对英汉翻译的影响》
3. 《商务英语的特点及翻译技巧》
4. 《商务英语函电在对外贸易中的作用》
5. 《单证员在国际贸易中的地位》
6. 《商务英语函电翻译技巧》
7. 《商务谈判中英语的重要性》
8. 《浅谈出口结汇风险的防范》
9. 《中国退税制度的改革及其影响》
10. 《商标名称的翻译与策略》
11. 《外贸企业信用风险管理与控制》
12. 《2007年外资银行在我国本土注册探讨》
13. 《我国利用国际贷款/国际援助现状分析》
14. 《WTO与我国反倾销探讨》
15. 《我国对外直接投资之现状》
16. 《内陆地区对外贸易发展策略研究》
17. 《中印两国两国对外贸易战略分析》
18. 《人民币升值对我国出口贸易的影响》
19. 《浅谈商务英语写作时避免修饰语错位的方法》
20. 《商务函电翻译的用词技巧》
21. 《外商直接在华投资探讨》
22. 《社会文化迁移对中国式英语的影响》
23. 《我国外贸出口品牌战略的实施与研究》
24. 《商务英语专业口语课程教学探讨》
25. 《入世对我国农产品贸易的影响与对策研究》
26. 《应对经济全球化,加快我国企业跨国经营》
27. 《英语写作中常见中式英语分析》
28. 《入世商务英语写作的研究》
29. 《制单工作在国际结算中的地位》
30. 《关税壁垒与非关税壁垒探讨》
31. 《浅谈实质利益谈判法》
32. 《国际电子商务发展面临的新问题》
33. 《商务英语写作中的错误与商务英语写作教学之间的关系》
34. 《清算所在期货市场上的地位》
35. 《跨国公司在华扩张模式透析》
36. 《汉译英中遇到新词语的译法问题》
37. 英汉互译中词义的不对应(文化意义、风格意义、修辞意义等)
38. 我国市场经济国家地位与反倾销
39. 如何防范信用证诈骗
40. 我国中小企业开拓国际市场之探讨
41. "10+1"自由贸易区未来前景展望
42. 汉语中新词汇的翻译技巧
43. 商务英语的特征与翻译
44. 珠江三角洲外贸现状及存在的问题
45. 南昌现利用外资纵谈
46. 广州/深圳等地区三资企业结构分析
47. 浅谈广州等地区外贸企业的困境与出路
48. 浅谈广州等地区出口产品结构的市场分布
49. 商务英语专业毕业生就业岗位之探讨
50. 单证员跟单员等资格证书现状思考
51. 礼仪在商务谈判中的作用
52. 跨国公司的本土化经营战略及其实施
53. 中国在亚洲区域合作中的地位和作用
54. 延长我国加工贸易国内价值链问题探析
55. 中国贸易的现状和前景
56. 我国西部地区引进外资问题研究
57. 人民币业务对外开放之探讨
58. 浅谈涉外合同英语特色
59. 海外投资与出口贸易的相互关系
60. 文化和地理因素对外商在中国直接投资的影响
61. 绿色壁垒对关税壁垒的替代效应研究
62. 新贸易保护主义的政策调整与我国贸易发展
63. 贸易磨檫及其解决机制研究
64. UCP600-信用证领域的新规则探讨
65. 论<<联合国国际货物销售合同公约>>的适用范围及总则
66. 浅谈<<联合国国际货物销售合同公约>>下卖方的知识产权担保义务
67. 我国纺织业出口竞争秩序现状分析与对策探讨
68. 浅谈来料加工与进料加工的利弊
69. 经纪佣金商或场内经纪人在期货交易中的地位
70. 浅谈商检证书在国际贸易中的作用
附件2 开题报告格式
商务学院
高职毕业设计(论文)开题报告
题目名称: 中国家庭企业管理创新研究
题目性质: 研究论文
学生姓名: XXX
专 业: 工商管理
学 院: XXXX
年 级: 04级
指导教师: XXX
一、 选题背景
随着我国经济的高速发展,以家族企业为主的民营企业也得到了快速发展和壮大,在国民经济中发挥了越来越重要的作用。但是,与此同时,我国的家族企业也暴露出越来越多的问题,如家长式的管理方法、企业基础管理制度不健全和后续发展无力等诸多问题。这些问题不仅制约着我国家族企业的发展壮大,而且严重影响到我国经济的健康快速的发展,因此,研究我国现阶段家族企业如何进行管理创新,以最大限度地调动家族企业员工的积极性,从而实现家族企业生产要素优化配置,促进家族企业持续发展已显得尤为紧迫。
二、研究的基本内容,拟解决的主要问题、研究步骤、方法
本文从我国家族企业的实际情况出发,以管理创新的理论为指导,对我国家族企业如何进行行之有效的管理创新进行深入地研究。首先评述了国内外学者对家族企业管管理创新含义的不同看法,提出了家族企业管理创新的含义、构成要素及内在机理,认为我国家族企业进行管理创新的有效性在于有利于更好地实现家族企业的经营目标,有利于充公调动企业员工尤其非家族成员的积极性和创造性。
其次,分析了我国现阶段家族企业管理创新的现状及存在的问题,指出了我国家族企业管理模式存在诸多不足,如在管理创新过程中仍然存在家长式决策、缺乏战略管理和基础薄弱等诸多问题,所有这些在客观上要求创建一种新的管理模式以促进家族企业健康快速发展。
再次,要创建一种适合我国家族企业实情的管理模式,就必须全面准确地把握好我国家族企业所面临的外部环境。因此,本文指出了我国家族企业开展管理创新面临着外部环境的特殊性和复杂性。
三、研究工作进度
1、教师报题(2006.11.1----11.15)
2、网上公布毕业设计题目和指导教师(2006.11.20)
3、学生选题(2006.11.20---12. 15)
4、落实任务(学生与导师见面,交电子邮箱地址)(2006.12. 1---12. 25)
5、学生上交开题报告(纸字稿)(2006.12.25----2007.1.15)
6、中期论文检查(交电子稿) (2007.4月1日前)
7、论文上交(纸字稿附电子稿)(2007.4.15----2007.5.1)
8、07届毕业设计答辩(评定学生成绩)(2007.6月初)
9、07届优秀论文评定(2007.6.15)
10、07届优秀论文汇报会(2007.6下旬)
四、主要参考文献
[1]顾文静,温州民营企业实行委托---制的障碍分析,经济管理。2002.2
[2]甘德安,中国家族企业研究,中国社会科学出版社,2002年版
［中图分类号］G642.4 ［文献标识码］A ［文章编号］1009－5349（2012）02－0195－02
引言
根据开放教育本科英语（教育方向）教学计划的规定，学员在基本修完本专业规定的必修课和选修课后，进入以撰写毕业论文为主的集中实践环节。教学实践设计环节即毕业论文设计是开放教育本科英语专业教育方向的一个极为重要的环节。在本文中，笔者基于近五年的毕业论文指导实践基础，阐述了开放教育英语本科毕业论文的特点，分析了毕业论文写作中存在的问题和不足之处，并在此基础上提出了相应的对策与建议。
一、开放教育本科英语专业毕业论文的特点
开放教育本科英语教育专业学员所写的毕业论文除了学术性（scholarly）、创新性（original）、规范性（formal）这几个毕业论文的基本特征外，还应体现英语教育的职业性（professional）和过程性。
（一）毕业论文的设计应体现理论联系教育实践原则
所谓“学有所用”，学员毕业论文的选题要结合自己的课堂教学实践，真正解决本人在教学实践中遇到的客观存在的问题。毕业论文指导教师应就“教学行为研究”的基本要求和原则面向全体学员以讲座或课程的形式进行指导。整篇毕业论文至少要体现有四次教学研究记录或教学日记；要有一次课堂教学的录像或录音；要有原始调查问卷，或座谈的录音等，以保证教育教学这一职业性的凸显。
（二）毕业论文的设计应该体现过程性原则
整个毕业论文设计必须经过问题分析、方案设计、项目实施、项目评估和项目报告几个阶段。学员的研究必须针对其课堂中确确实实反映出的问题，方案的设计必须符合要求，实施阶段必须严格监控，保证有一个月的实施时间，指导教师对学生的研究要如实评估，项目报告，亦即论文必须符合论文的写作规范，要体现指导过程。整个设计环节由5个环节组成：
1.项目启动：指导教师可采用集体或分散等指导方式，介绍研究原则和研究方法，布置研究任务；
2.问题分析和方案设计：学员分析自己课堂教学中反映出的问题，设计问题解决方案；
3.项目实施：学员通过课堂教学具体实施方案；
4.项目评估：学员运用评估手段和方法，对项目的事实情况及结果进行评估；
5.项目报告：学员根据论文写作规范，用英文写出正文4000词左右的项目报告，同时提供项目实施过程中的所有原始材料。
在整个论文的写作过程中，项目启动是整个论文写作的理论基础；问题分析和方案设计确定论文研究方向；项目实施是论文实用价值体现的关键环节；项目评估是对论文学术价值的提炼；项目报告是对整个写作痕迹的保留。这五个环节环环相扣，缺一不可，相辅相成，层层递进。
二、撰写开放教育本科英语专业毕业论文存在的问题及其对策
毕业论文写作对于开放教育本科英语专业的学员来说非常具有挑战性，因为除了完成一般毕业论文所要完成的各个环节以外，英语专业的学生还需用英文进行毕业论文的写作。要想顺利完成英语专业毕业论文设计,学员要从论文的选题、时间安排及写作心态三方面同步着手。
（一）选题问题
开放教育学员本身写作水平不高（大多学员学历为中专），面对论文选题往往要么望而却步，要么求大求空，无法驾驭论文写作。要解决毕业论文选题难这个问题，在具体的毕业论文指导实践中，指导教师则需着力推进“两个兼容”原则。该原则有利于学员对自己的教学实践进行反思，并学以致用。
1.原则之一：教学实践和学术研究兼容。由于开放教育本科英语专业的学员大多数是中小学一线教师，有着相当丰富的教学经验，驾驭本专业与自己工作实践联系紧密的论文选题会相对来说容易得多。其次，学员对自己多年来的教学实践进行反思和思考，整理和提炼教学心得，再用于指导自己的教学实践，这样的论文很有实践性和指导性。最后要注意在强调联系教育实践的同时，也不能轻视了毕业论文的规范性，学员通过英文写作锻炼了英文写作技巧，同时也对论文写作的规范要求进行了写作实践。
2.原则之二：个人特长和实际情况兼容。学员进行毕业论文的选题时还要考虑自己的特长、综合知识水平、学术科研能力和客观条件。学员最好选择自身擅长并且有一定兴趣的题目。擅长能表现出学员对该论题有较深的认识思考及一定的实践经验，能降低写作难度，更充分地发挥个人的主观能动性，从而做到素材充实，个人见解深刻，针对性强。指导老师可帮助学生对历年的论文题目进行归类，然后就每一类给出具体实例，让学员亲身体验，和学员共同探讨，寻找自己感兴趣、熟悉或是能驾驭的题目。历年论文题目基本可划分为教学实践经验总结、学生心理研究、学科思想、学生非智力因素等方面。
（二）时间问题
由于开放教育本科英语专业学员大多为成人或在职中小学英语教师，工作负担沉重，家庭生活压力大，在完成工作任务和照顾好家庭之余用于论文写作的时间就非常有限，因此时间的合理安排和使用是毕业论文按期按质完成的重要保障。毕业论文的时间安排表如下：
从上表可以看出，在教学计划中留出用于毕业论文写作的时间本身就非常有限，且由于是安排在最后一个学期，面临毕业，论文已无延期上交的可能性，因学员自身不够重视或工作忙等原因最后只能选择放弃论文答辩的现象屡见不鲜。为改变这一无论是学员还是指导教师都不愿意看到的局面，笔者建议首先学员应当重视毕业论文的写作，毕竟三年所学，毕于所写。学员应当处理好学业与工作的关系，充分、高效地使用业余时间进行论文方案的实施及撰写，对写作过程中的困难要有充分的思想准备，耐得住寂寞，忍得下艰苦。其次，作为指导教师则应确实把握好论文写作的每个环节，运用E-Mail、手机等现代化联系方式，或告知学生可进行双向语音或视频联络的网址（例如雅虎通、QQ、MSN等）充分与学员进行有效沟通，指导到位，引导学员逐段完成论文，渐入佳境。按时间安排逐项完成各项写作任务还有赖于指导教师对学员的阶段性检查，定期检查学生的工作进度和质量。
（三）心态问题
学员积极的写作心态，是毕业论文顺利完成的重要保障。积极心态的创立离不开指导教师的培养和学员自身养成。
1.指导教师要为学员设置成功目标。在长达半年的毕业论文写作过程中，指导教师在学员因为这样或那样的困难导致论文写不下去时,应不厌其烦地进行鼓励。为了使毕业论文顺利完成这一远景目标变得不那么遥不可及，指导教师可以对远景目标进行分解，放在每一个写作阶段，逐一完成，使得远景目标的实现具备较强的可操作性。
2.学员对自己的论文写作应持积极心态。积极心态是一种对任何人、任何情况或任何环境所把持的正确、诚恳而且有建设性，同时也不违背法律、道德和人类权利的思想、行为或反映。积极心态有利于毕业论文的顺利完成。下图是柳州市广播电视大学2005-2011年部分毕业生毕业论文心理状况调查表，可以反映出由于持不同心态的毕业生参加毕业论文写作会产生的不同结果。
柳州市广播电视大学2005-2011年部分毕业生毕业论文心理状况调查表
上表显示的状况是不能令人放心的，这样的心态必然会引发教学、管理等方面的一系列问题。混学、浮学现象严重，缺勤、论文抄袭、拼凑等现象屡禁不绝。这些与上述消极心态有直接的关系。在艰辛的毕业论文创作过程中，学员应抱积极心态，把自己遇到的种种失败看成人生经历的宝贵财富。不论怎样，坚持下来，就是最大的胜利。在近五年的指导毕业论文的实践中，笔者发现具有积极心态的学员写作目标明确，动机强，遇到写作困难时善于动脑筋、想办法，写作进展速度快。而具有消极心态的学员在进行毕业论文的创作时，往往遇难而退；面对种种写作困难采取逃避或是蒙混过关的办法，其结果往往是论文不能按时上交，延期毕业。
三、结束语
综上所述，坚持“两个兼容”原则指导学员选题，合理安排论文撰写时间，帮助学生建立积极的撰写心态，能较好地体现电大开放教育培养“实用性、应用性”人才的办学宗旨，可以在一定程度上消除当前毕业论文写作的尴尬状况。毕业论文是一个极其艰辛的实施过程，只要学员合理安排好论文写作时间，保持积极的写作心态就能顺利完成毕业论文的写作，参加论文答辩，达到个人的学术研究高峰。
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原因分析以上分析表明学生毕业论文在选题、内容与结构、文献资料以及实践性论文方面都存在或多或少，或大或小的毛病，这其中有主观原因，也有客观原因。1.客观原因客观原因主要有以下几点：首先，新建本科院校大多从专科院校升格而来，专科教育以教学为主要职能，科研对教师来说只是“副业”[1]77，本科教育教师除了教学外，还有科研要求。但是新建本科院校办学时间都比较短，科研氛围积淀不足，整体师资在科研方面比较薄弱，很难为学生提供有效的指导。其次，新建本科院校的生源质量相对985、211老牌本科院校低，学生一进来底子就比较薄，直接造成学生语言基本功薄弱，无法撰写表达流畅、语言规范并有一定质量的论文。第三，新建地方本科院校大多面临办学经费不足，资金来源有限，又要进行大量的基础设施建设，图书资料建设相对滞后，实践教学流于形式，实践项目难以实质跟上，这在很大程度上影响毕业论文的质量及实践性论文的开展。第四，教学改革没有跟上，语言课还是按照老套的教学方式，重记忆与操练，轻分析和思辩，缺乏对学生逻辑思维和分析判断能力的培养和训练。因此，学生就缺乏发现问题、提出问题和解决问题的能力。2.主观原因主观原因主要涉及学生与教师两个层面：第一，学生对毕业论文重视不够，认识不足，态度不认真，存在畏难情绪、依赖心理。发现不少学生对指导教师提出的修改意见，不认真查阅资料，仔细修改，而是一次又一次更改选题，以为只要简单“好过”就行。有些学生想走“捷径”，直接到网上寻找“现成”的材料，东拼西凑、简单粘贴，把艰巨的修改任务交给导师。有些学生将毕业论文“束之高阁”，一拖再拖，直到要毕业了都还交不了差。其次，由于有些院校对毕业论文只重视结果管理，忽视过程管理，甚至疏于管理，调查中发现有些院系没有设立专人负责毕业论文管理，有些责任心不强的指导教师，对所指导的学生要么放任自流，要么敷衍了事，要么流于形式，没有给学生提供真正的指导。
对策与建议
